Cover image for Distribution reliability and power quality
Title:
Distribution reliability and power quality
Publication Information:
Boca Raton, FL : CRC/Taylor & Francis, 2006
ISBN:
9780849395758

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30000010115569 TK3091 S56 2006 Open Access Book Book
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30000010115568 TK3091 S56 2006 Open Access Book Book
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Summary

Summary

Power distribution and quality remain the key challenges facing the electrical utilities industry. Technology alone cannot provide a solution to power quality problems, and there exists a variety of procedures and programs that can be put in place to ensure reliable, high quality electricity. With chapters carefully culled from the best-selling Electric Power Distribution Handbook, Distribution Reliability and Power Quality provides an economical, sharply focused reference for engineers and technicians working in this specialty area of power distribution.

The book introduces the concept of reliability, outlining various methods of assessing and improving reliability along with the factors that affect it. It follows with a detailed look at voltage sags and momentary interruptions, various solutions to these issues, power quality monitoring, and other quality issues such as voltage unbalance and harmonics. Because faults are the cause of many interruptions and other power quality problems, the author devotes a detailed chapter to various aspects of faults. Focused on enhancing the delivery of high-quality power, this volume includes a new chapter on reliability and power quality improvement programs that provide a roadmap to better performance and ultimately to higher efficiency.

Presenting a host of practical solutions for reliability and power quality specialists, Distribution Reliability and Power Quality gathers critical tools, techniques, and knowledge into a single source that is ideally suited for immediate implementation.


Author Notes

Short\, Thomas Allen


Table of Contents

1 Reliabilityp. 1
1.1 Reliability Indicesp. 1
1.1.1 Customer-Based Indicesp. 1
1.1.2 Load-Based Indicesp. 5
1.2 Storms and Weatherp. 6
1.3 Variables Affecting Reliability Indicesp. 10
1.3.1 Circuit Exposure and Load Densityp. 10
1.3.2 Supply Configurationp. 11
1.3.3 Voltagep. 12
1.3.4 Long-Term Reliability Trendsp. 13
1.4 Modeling Radial Distribution Circuitsp. 15
1.5 Parallel Distribution Systemsp. 17
1.6 Improving Reliabilityp. 21
1.6.1 Identify and Target Fault Causesp. 22
1.6.2 Identify and Target Circuitsp. 23
1.6.3 Switching and Protection Equipmentp. 23
1.6.4 Automationp. 27
1.6.5 Maintenance and Inspectionsp. 29
1.6.6 Restorationp. 31
1.6.7 Fault Reductionp. 34
1.7 Interruption Costsp. 34
Referencesp. 36
2 Voltage Sags and Momentary Interruptionsp. 39
2.1 Locationp. 40
2.2 Momentary Interruptionsp. 42
2.3 Voltage Sagsp. 45
2.3.1 Effect of Phasesp. 51
2.3.2 Load Responsep. 51
2.3.3 Analysis of Voltage Sagsp. 53
2.4 Characterizing Sags and Momentariesp. 54
2.4.1 Industry Standardsp. 54
2.4.2 Characterization Detailsp. 56
2.5 Occurrences of Voltage Sagsp. 57
2.5.1 Site Power Quality Variationsp. 59
2.5.2 Transmission-Level Power Qualityp. 62
2.6 Correlations of Sags and Momentariesp. 62
2.7 Factors That Influence Sag and Momentary Ratesp. 63
2.7.1 Locationp. 64
2.7.2 Load Densityp. 66
2.7.3 Voltage Classp. 67
2.7.4 Comparison and Ranking of Factorsp. 67
2.8 Prediction of Quality Indicators Based on Site Characteristicsp. 69
2.9 Equipment Sensitivitiesp. 71
2.9.1 Computers and Electronic Power Suppliesp. 71
2.9.2 Industrial Processes and Equipmentp. 75
2.9.2.1 Relays and Contactorsp. 76
2.9.2.2 Adjustable-Speed Drivesp. 79
2.9.2.3 Programmable-Logic Controllersp. 81
2.9.3 Residential Equipmentp. 81
2.10 Solution Optionsp. 81
2.10.1 Utility Options for Momentary Interruptionsp. 81
2.10.2 Utility Options for Voltage Sagsp. 84
2.10.2.1 Raising the Nominal Voltagep. 85
2.10.2.2 Line Reactorsp. 85
2.10.2.3 Neutral Reactorsp. 86
2.10.2.4 Current-Limiting Fusesp. 87
2.10.3 Utility Options with Nontraditional Equipmentp. 88
2.10.3.1 Fast Transfer Switchesp. 88
2.10.3.2 DVRs and Other Custom-Power Devicesp. 89
2.10.4 Customer/Equipment Solutionsp. 91
2.11 Power Quality Monitoringp. 92
Referencesp. 94
3 Other Power Quality Issuesp. 99
3.1 Overvoltages and Customer Equipment Failuresp. 99
3.1.1 Secondary/Facility Groundingp. 101
3.1.2 Reclose Transientsp. 103
3.2 Switching Surgesp. 104
3.2.1 Voltage Magnificationp. 108
3.2.2 Tripping of Adjustable-Speed Drivesp. 110
3.2.3 Prevention of Capacitor Transientsp. 111
3.3 Harmonicsp. 112
3.3.1 Resonancesp. 119
3.3.2 Telephone Interferencep. 121
3.4 Flickerp. 125
3.4.1 Flicker Solutionsp. 133
3.4.1.1 Load Changesp. 133
3.4.1.2 Series Capacitorp. 135
3.4.1.3 Static Var Compensatorp. 138
3.4.1.4 Other Solutionsp. 139
3.5 Voltage Unbalancep. 140
Referencesp. 143
4 Faultsp. 147
4.1 General Fault Characteristicsp. 147
4.2 Fault Calculationsp. 153
4.2.1 Transformer Connectionsp. 158
4.2.2 Fault Profilesp. 159
4.2.3 Effect of X/R Ratiop. 162
4.2.4 Secondary Faultsp. 165
4.2.5 Primary-to-Secondary Faultsp. 167
4.2.6 Underbuilt Fault to a Transmission Circuitp. 171
4.2.7 Fault Location Calculationsp. 174
4.3 Limiting Fault Currentsp. 178
4.4 Arc Characteristicsp. 179
4.5 High-Impedance Faultsp. 185
4.6 External Fault Causesp. 189
4.6.1 Treesp. 189
4.6.2 Weather and Lightningp. 196
4.6.3 Animalsp. 197
4.6.4 Other External Causesp. 198
4.7 Equipment Faultsp. 199
4.8 Faults in Equipmentp. 200
Referencesp. 204
5 Reliability and Power Quality Improvement Programsp. 209
5.1 Improvements in Protection Practicesp. 209
5.1.1 Fusingp. 210
5.1.2 Fuse Saving vs. Fuse Blowingp. 211
5.1.3 Reclosing Practicesp. 215
5.1.4 Single-Phase Protective Devicesp. 218
5.1.4.1 Ferroresonancep. 219
5.1.4.2 Backfeedsp. 219
5.1.4.3 Single-Phasing Impacts on Motorsp. 220
5.1.4.4 Single-Phase Trip, Three-Phase Lockoutp. 221
5.1.5 Improving Coordinationp. 221
5.1.6 Locating Sectionalizing Equipmentp. 222
5.2 Fault Sourcesp. 226
5.2.1 Treesp. 228
5.2.2 Lightningp. 233
5.2.3 Animalsp. 240
5.2.4 Cable and Equipment Failuresp. 243
5.3 Programs to Reduce Fault Ratesp. 246
5.4 Outage Follow-Upsp. 247
5.5 Problem-Circuit Auditsp. 249
5.6 Construction Upgrade Programsp. 250
5.7 Using Outage Databasesp. 252
Referencesp. 257
Indexp. 261