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Summary
Summary
Reflecting a decade's worth of changes, Human Safety and Risk Management, Second Edition contains new chapters addressing safety culture and models of risk as well as an extensive re-working of the material from the earlier edition. Examining a wide range of approaches to risk, the authors define safety culture and review theoretical models that elucidate mechanisms linking safety culture with safety performance.
Filled with practical examples and case studies and drawing on a range of disciplines, the book explores individual differences and the many ways in which human beings are alike within a risk and safety context. It delineates a risk management approach that includes a range of techniques such as risk assessment, safety audit, and safety interventions. The authors address concepts central to workplace safety such as attitudes and their link with behavior. They discuss managing behavior in work environments including key functions and benefits of groups, factors influencing team effectiveness, and barriers to effectiveness such as groupthink.
Table of Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction | p. 1 |
1.1 Establishing the field | p. 1 |
1.2 Emerging issues in OHS research and practice | p. 7 |
1.2.1 Contexts | p. 7 |
1.2.2 Fields and topics | p. 8 |
1.2.2.1 Legal and regulatory | p. 8 |
1.2.2.2 Technical | p. 9 |
1.2.2.3 Health | p. 9 |
1.2.2.4 Psychological | p. 10 |
1.2.2.5 Managerial | p. 11 |
1.2.3 Ten generic challenges for OHS research and practice | p. 11 |
1.2.3.1 Integrating knowledge | p. 11 |
1.2.3.2 Knowledge application | p. 11 |
1.2.3.3 Program evaluation | p. 12 |
1.2.3.4 System complexity | p. 12 |
1.2.3.5 Multiple synergies | p. 12 |
1.2.3.6 Resources | p. 12 |
1.2.3.7 Displacing risk | p. 13 |
1.2.3.8 Ethics and social justice | p. 13 |
1.2.3.9 Triangulating methodologies | p. 13 |
1.2.3.10 Conceptual and theoretical advances | p. 14 |
Chapter 2 Risk models and risk management | p. 15 |
2.1 Introduction | p. 15 |
2.2 First-order concepts/approaches to risk | p. 17 |
2.2.1 Technical | p. 17 |
2.2.1.1 Description of the technical approach | p. 17 |
2.2.1.2 Risk management and the technical approach | p. 18 |
2.2.1.3 Illustrative interventions | p. 18 |
2.2.1.4 Where next for the technical approach to risk? | p. 18 |
2.2.2 Economic | p. 19 |
2.2.2.1 Description of the economic approach | p. 19 |
2.2.2.2 Risk management and the economic approach | p. 22 |
2.2.2.3 Illustrative interventions | p. 24 |
2.2.2.4 Further comments on the economic approach | p. 24 |
2.2.3 Cultural theory | p. 25 |
2.2.3.1 Description of the approach from cultural theory | p. 25 |
2.2.3.2 Risk management and cultural theory | p. 26 |
2.2.3.3 Illustrative interventions | p. 28 |
2.2.3.4 Further comments on cultural theory | p. 29 |
2.2.4 Psychometric | p. 29 |
2.2.4.1 Describing the psychometric paradigm | p. 29 |
2.2.4.2 Risk management and the psychometric approach | p. 32 |
2.2.4.3 Illustrative interventions | p. 33 |
2.2.4.4 Further comments on the psychometric approach | p. 33 |
2.3 Expanded/developed approaches to risk | p. 34 |
2.3.1 Social constructionism | p. 34 |
2.3.1.1 Describing the social constructionist approach | p. 34 |
2.3.1.2 Risk management and the social constructionist approach | p. 34 |
2.3.1.3 Illustrative interventions | p. 34 |
2.3.2 Social amplification of risk framework | p. 35 |
2.3.2.1 Describing the social amplification of risk framework (SARF) | p. 35 |
2.3.2.2 Risk management and the social amplification framework | p. 36 |
2.3.2.3 Illustrative interventions | p. 37 |
2.3.2.4 Criticisms of SARF | p. 37 |
2.3.3 Individual differences | p. 38 |
2.3.3.1 Individual differences and risk-taking behaviors | p. 38 |
2.3.3.2 Risk management and individual differences | p. 40 |
2.3.3.3 Illustrative interventions | p. 40 |
2.3.4 Basic risk perception model | p. 40 |
2.3.4.1 Describing the basic risk perception model (BRPM) | p. 40 |
2.3.4.2 Criticisms of the BRPM | p. 42 |
2.3.4.3 Risk management and the BRPM | p. 42 |
2.3.4.4 Illustrative interventions | p. 42 |
2.4 Meta-approaches to risk | p. 43 |
2.4.1 Political | p. 43 |
2.4.1.1 What constitutes a political approach to risk? | p. 43 |
2.4.1.2 Risk management and the political approach | p. 46 |
2.4.1.3 Illustrative interventions | p. 47 |
2.4.1.4 Further political risk model development | p. 48 |
2.4.2 Socio-emotional | p. 49 |
2.4.2.1 Describing the socio-emotional approach to risk | p. 49 |
2.4.2.2 Risk management and the socio-emotional approach | p. 51 |
2.4.2.3 Illustrative implications | p. 52 |
2.4.3 Adaptation | p. 52 |
2.4.3.1 Adapting to risk | p. 52 |
2.4.3.2 Adaptation and risk management | p. 55 |
2.4.3.3 Illustrative interventions | p. 56 |
2.4.4 Evolutionary | p. 57 |
2.4.4.1 Describing the evolutionary approach | p. 57 |
2.4.4.2 Risk management and the evolutionary approach | p. 61 |
2.4.4.3 Illustrative applications | p. 62 |
2.4.4.4 Links with other models | p. 62 |
2.5 Further discussion | p. 64 |
Chapter 3 From sensation and perception through motivation and behavior | p. 67 |
3.1 Introduction | p. 67 |
3.2 Sensation and the human senses | p. 68 |
3.2.1 Vision | p. 70 |
3.2.2 Hearing and vibration | p. 72 |
3.3 Perceptual organization and interpretation | p. 74 |
3.3.1 Organization | p. 75 |
3.3.2 Interpretation | p. 77 |
3.4 Attention and vigilance | p. 78 |
3.4.1 Sustained attention and vigilance | p. 79 |
3.4.2 Selective attention | p. 79 |
3.4.3 Effectiveness of warnings | p. 81 |
3.5 Causal attribution | p. 83 |
3.5.1 Attributional effects | p. 88 |
3.5.1.1 Self-serving bias | p. 89 |
3.5.1.2 Severity bias | p. 89 |
3.5.1.3 False consensus | p. 91 |
3.5.1.4 Situation bias | p. 91 |
3.5.1.5 Correlational bias | p. 91 |
3.5.1.6 Negative weighting | p. 92 |
3.5.1.7 Availability | p. 92 |
3.5.1.8 Adjustment | p. 92 |
3.5.1.9 Representativeness | p. 93 |
3.5.1.10 Small numbers | p. 93 |
3.5.1.11 Anchoring | p. 93 |
3.5.1.12 Overconfidence | p. 93 |
3.5.1.13 Hindsight | p. 94 |
3.6 Behavioral approach to motivation | p. 96 |
3.6.1 Behavior modification | p. 96 |
3.6.2 Principles of learning: implications for safety | p. 100 |
3.6.3 Goal setting and performance feedback | p. 100 |
3.7 Motivating for safety | p. 105 |
3.8 Conclusions | p. 107 |
Chapter 4 Human error and human factors | p. 109 |
4.1 Introduction | p. 109 |
4.2 Human error | p. 110 |
4.2.1 Errors as a learning tool | p. 110 |
4.3 Categorizing human error | p. 113 |
4.3.1 Slips and lapses | p. 114 |
4.3.2 Mistakes | p. 117 |
4.3.2.1 Rule-based mistakes | p. 117 |
4.3.2.2 Knowledge-based mistakes | p. 118 |
4.3.2.3 Violations | p. 120 |
4.4 Error occurrence and detection | p. 124 |
4.4.1 Error reduction strategies | p. 128 |
4.5 Human factors | p. 131 |
4.5.1 Ergonomic principles | p. 131 |
4.5.2 Human and machine performance | p. 131 |
4.6 Interface design | p. 136 |
4.6.1 Fitting tasks to human operators | p. 136 |
4.6.2 Ergonomic applications to reduce human error potential | p. 138 |
4.7 Techniques for reducing human error/increasing human reliability | p. 144 |
4.7.1 Task analysis | p. 144 |
4.7.2 Task analysis for error identification (TAFEI) | p. 145 |
4.7.3 Predictive human error analysis (PHEA) | p. 146 |
4.7.4 Reason's generic approach | p. 149 |
4.7.5 Quantified human reliability assessment (HRA) | p. 149 |
4.7.6 Influence diagrams and model of accident causation using hierarchical influence network | p. 151 |
4.7.7 Human factors investigation tool (HFIT) for accident analysis | p. 152 |
4.7.8 Overview | p. 152 |
4.8 Conclusions | p. 153 |
Chapter 5 Personality and risk liability | p. 155 |
5.1 Introduction | p. 155 |
5.2 Models of personality and the "big five" | p. 156 |
5.3 Accident proneness | p. 161 |
5.4 "Big-five" personality characteristics and injury liability | p. 169 |
5.4.1 Extraversion | p. 170 |
5.4.1.1 Sensation seeking | p. 171 |
5.4.1.2 Other facets of extraversion | p. 172 |
5.4.1.3 Reversal theory | p. 173 |
5.4.2 Neuroticism | p. 173 |
5.4.3 Conscientiousness | p. 174 |
5.4.4 Agreeableness | p. 175 |
5.4.5 Openness | p. 176 |
5.5 Risk propensity | p. 177 |
5.6 Individual differences in error liability | p. 178 |
5.7 Personality at work | p. 179 |
5.7.1 Using personality tests in selection | p. 179 |
5.8 Conclusions | p. 182 |
Chapter 6 Attitudes, values, and risk behaviors | p. 185 |
6.1 Introduction | p. 185 |
6.2 Understanding attitudes | p. 186 |
6.3 The nature of attitudes | p. 187 |
6.3.1 Definition | p. 187 |
6.3.2 Attitude components | p. 188 |
6.3.2.1 Affective | p. 188 |
6.3.2.2 Cognitive | p. 189 |
6.3.2.3 Behavioral intention | p. 190 |
6.3.3 Attitude dimensions | p. 191 |
6.3.4 Attitude measurement | p. 191 |
6.3.4.1 Likert | p. 192 |
6.3.4.2 Semantic differential | p. 193 |
6.3.4.3 Visual analogue | p. 193 |
6.4 Attitudes toward safety and risk | p. 193 |
6.5 Attitudes and behavior: some theoretical perspectives | p. 195 |
6.5.1 Attitudes influence behavior | p. 195 |
6.5.2 Behavior influences attitudes | p. 195 |
6.5.3 Attitudes and behavior are mutually reinforcing | p. 196 |
6.5.4 Attitudes and behavior are likely to be mutually consistent, but independent | p. 197 |
6.6 More complex approaches to attitude-behavior links | p. 198 |
6.6.1 The theory of planned behavior (TPB) | p. 198 |
6.6.2 The health belief model (HBM) | p. 202 |
6.6.3 Protection motivation theory | p. 203 |
6.6.4 Overview of complex models describing attitude-behavior links | p. 204 |
6.7 Attitude change | p. 207 |
6.7.1 Attitude functions | p. 207 |
6.7.2 Attitude levels | p. 207 |
6.7.2.1 Compliance | p. 207 |
6.7.2.2 Identification | p. 208 |
6.7.2.3 Internalization | p. 208 |
6.7.2.4 The importance of attitude strength | p. 208 |
6.7.3 Attitude change interventions | p. 209 |
6.7.3.1 Audience | p. 209 |
6.7.3.2 Persuader | p. 209 |
6.7.3.3 Personality factors | p. 210 |
6.7.3.4 Presentation of issues | p. 210 |
6.7.3.5 Persistence of change | p. 210 |
6.7.4 Other factors in attitude-behavior change | p. 210 |
6.7.4.1 Information provision | p. 210 |
6.7.4.2 Fear | p. 211 |
6.7.4.3 Sanctions | p. 212 |
6.8 Safety climate and safety attitudes | p. 216 |
6.8.1 The concept of safety climate | p. 219 |
6.8.1.1 Safety climate and perception | p. 220 |
6.8.2 Safety climate and safe behavior | p. 222 |
6.9 Conclusions | p. 224 |
Chapter 7 The role of stress in safety and risk | p. 227 |
7.1 Introduction | p. 227 |
7.2 Theoretical models of stress | p. 229 |
7.3 Workplace stressors and injuries | p. 233 |
7.3.1 Intrinsic job characteristics | p. 235 |
7.3.1.1 Workload and work pace | p. 235 |
7.3.1.2 Work schedules and shiftwork | p. 236 |
7.3.2 Organizational roles | p. 237 |
7.3.3 Work relationships | p. 238 |
7.3.4 Job insecurity | p. 239 |
7.4 Individual differences and job stress | p. 240 |
7.4.1 Personality | p. 241 |
7.4.2 Type A behavior pattern (TABP) | p. 242 |
7.4.3 Negative affectivity | p. 243 |
7.4.4 Locus of control | p. 243 |
7.4.5 Self-esteem | p. 245 |
7.5 Mechanisms linking stress with injuries | p. 245 |
7.5.1 Direct effects of job stress on injuries | p. 245 |
7.5.1.1 Effects of acute stressors | p. 247 |
7.5.1.2 Effects of chronic stressors | p. 247 |
7.5.2 Indirect effects of job stress on injuries | p. 249 |
7.5.2.1 Work-related attitudes | p. 250 |
7.5.2.2 General health | p. 250 |
7.5.3 The role of moderating factors | p. 251 |
7.5.3.1 Social support | p. 251 |
7.5.3.2 Coping strategies | p. 253 |
7.6 Stress interventions | p. 254 |
7.6.1 Individual-level stress interventions | p. 255 |
7.6.1.1 Employee assistance programs (EAPs) | p. 258 |
7.6.1.2 Stress management programs | p. 259 |
7.6.1.3 Health promotion programs | p. 260 |
7.6.2 Organizational level stress interventions | p. 261 |
7.6.2.1 Work redesign | p. 261 |
7.6.2.2 Participation and autonomy | p. 262 |
7.6.2.3 Social support groups | p. 264 |
7.6.3 Effectiveness of stress interventions | p. 265 |
7.7 Conclusions | p. 267 |
Chapter 8 Managing teams for safe performance | p. 269 |
8.1 Introduction | p. 269 |
8.2 Functions and benefits of groups | p. 271 |
8.3 Formation and types of groups | p. 272 |
8.3.1 Types of teams | p. 273 |
8.4 Team effectiveness | p. 274 |
8.4.1 Team design | p. 278 |
8.4.1.1 Group norms and expectations | p. 280 |
8.4.1.2 Cohesiveness | p. 284 |
8.4.1.3 Group safety climate | p. 286 |
8.4.1.4 Communication | p. 287 |
8.4.1.5 Group discussion and decision making | p. 289 |
8.4.1.6 Team leadership and self-managing teams | p. 290 |
8.4.1.7 Virtual teams | p. 292 |
8.5 Safety committee effectiveness | p. 294 |
8.6 Barriers to team effectiveness | p. 295 |
8.6.1 Social comparison and social control | p. 295 |
8.6.2 Intergroup relations | p. 296 |
8.6.3 Decision-making biases | p. 298 |
8.7 Managing effective work teams | p. 301 |
8.7.1 Managing teams as individuals | p. 301 |
8.7.2 Balancing authority and democracy | p. 302 |
8.7.3 Teams and organizational structures | p. 302 |
8.7.4 Teams and organizational support | p. 303 |
8.7.5 Teams and training | p. 303 |
8.8 Conclusions | p. 303 |
Chapter 9 Leading and supervising for safe performance | p. 307 |
9.1 Introduction | p. 307 |
9.2 Leadership theories | p. 309 |
9.2.1 Trait theories | p. 309 |
9.2.2 Leadership style | p. 309 |
9.2.3 Contingency theories | p. 312 |
9.2.3.1 Worker maturity | p. 312 |
9.2.3.2 Least preferred coworker (LPC) | p. 312 |
9.2.3.3 Normative model | p. 312 |
9.2.3.4 Path-goal theory | p. 313 |
9.2.4 Relational leadership | p. 313 |
9.2.4.1 Leader-member exchange (LMX) theory | p. 313 |
9.2.5 Trust and leadership | p. 314 |
9.3 New leadership theories | p. 316 |
9.3.1 Charismatic leadership | p. 316 |
9.3.2 Transformational leadership | p. 316 |
9.3.2.1 Individualized consideration | p. 318 |
9.3.2.2 Intellectual stimulation | p. 319 |
9.3.2.3 Inspirational motivation | p. 320 |
9.3.2.4 Idealized influence | p. 320 |
9.3.2.5 Contingent reward | p. 320 |
9.3.2.6 Management-by-exception and laissez-faire leadership | p. 321 |
9.3.3 Safety climate and leadership | p. 322 |
9.3.4 Substitutes for leadership | p. 324 |
9.3.5 Empowerment | p. 325 |
9.4 Leadership failures | p. 325 |
9.5 Leadership ethics | p. 327 |
9.6 Conclusions | p. 329 |
Chapter 10 Managing human risks | p. 331 |
10.1 Introduction | p. 331 |
10.2 A risk management approach | p. 332 |
10.2.1 Risk assessment | p. 332 |
10.2.2 Safety management systems | p. 333 |
10.2.2.1 Measuring performance | p. 334 |
10.2.2.2 Safety auditing | p. 337 |
10.2.3 Human resource management (HRM) | p. 339 |
10.3 HR practices associated with occupational health and safety | p. 342 |
10.3.1 Employment security | p. 346 |
10.3.2 Selective hiring | p. 348 |
10.3.3 Communication and information sharing | p. 349 |
10.3.4 Reward systems for safety | p. 350 |
10.3.5 Safety training | p. 351 |
10.3.5.1 The learning process | p. 351 |
10.3.5.2 Types of safety training | p. 353 |
10.3.5.3 Transfer of training | p. 355 |
10.3.5.4 Refresher training | p. 355 |
10.4 Managing safety risks: an integrated approach | p. 356 |
10.4.1 Types of safety intervention | p. 356 |
10.4.2 Individual and group level safety interventions | p. 357 |
10.4.3 Organizational level safety interventions | p. 359 |
10.4.3.1 Autonomy and safety outcomes | p. 359 |
10.4.3.2 Self-managing work teams | p. 359 |
10.4.3.3 Worker participation | p. 359 |
10.4.3.4 Communication | p. 359 |
10.4.3.5 Management development | p. 360 |
10.5 Conclusions | p. 360 |
Chapter 11 Safety culture | p. 363 |
11.1 Introduction | p. 363 |
11.2 Defining safety culture | p. 364 |
11.2.1 Safety culture as attitudes | p. 364 |
11.2.2 Safety culture as behavior | p. 367 |
11.3 Theoretical models of safety culture | p. 369 |
11.3.1 Organizational culture approach | p. 369 |
11.3.2 Total safety culture | p. 370 |
11.3.3 Safety culture: an informed culture | p. 372 |
11.3.4 Reciprocal safety culture model | p. 373 |
11.3.5 An approach from subcultures | p. 374 |
11.3.6 Work climate model | p. 377 |
11.3.7 A social capital theory of safety culture | p. 378 |
11.3.8 The role of safety climate | p. 379 |
11.3.9 The role of occupational stress | p. 379 |
11.3.10 High-reliability organizations and safety culture | p. 381 |
11.4 Approaches to developing and measuring safety culture | p. 382 |
11.4.1 Interpretive approaches | p. 382 |
11.4.2 Functionalist approaches | p. 383 |
11.4.3 Measuring safety culture | p. 384 |
11.4.3.1 Safety systems | p. 384 |
11.4.3.2 Safety attitudes and perceptions | p. 385 |
11.4.3.3 Safety behavior | p. 386 |
11.4.3.4 Triangulation | p. 387 |
11.4.3.5 Safety culture and injuries | p. 387 |
11.5 Changing toward a positive safety culture | p. 389 |
11.5.1 Indicators | p. 389 |
11.5.2 Drivers of change | p. 391 |
11.5.2.1 Direct cultural change | p. 391 |
11.5.2.2 Indirect cultural change | p. 392 |
11.5.2.3 Climate change | p. 395 |
11.6 Safety culture and risk management | p. 397 |
11.6.1 Antecedents of safety culture | p. 399 |
11.6.2 Safety culture as a form of risk control | p. 400 |
11.6.3 A risk management approach to safety | p. 401 |
11.6.3.1 Management commitment to safety | p. 401 |
11.6.3.2 Worker involvement | p. 402 |
11.6.3.3 Barriers | p. 404 |
11.7 Conclusions | p. 405 |
Chapter 12 Risk management - conclusions | p. 407 |
12.1 Staged approaches to managing safety risks | p. 407 |
12.2 Beyond a standards approach | p. 410 |
12.3 Integrating individual and organizational adaptive features | p. 413 |
12.4 Beyond prevention | p. 414 |
References | p. 419 |
Index | p. 487 |