Organizational simulation

From modeling and simulation to games and entertainment

With contributions from leaders in systems and organizational modeling, behavioral and social sciences, computing and visualization, and gaming and entertainment, Organizational Simulation both articulates the grand vision of immersive environments and shows, in detail, how to realize it. This book offers unparalleled insight into the cutting edge of the field, since it was written by those who actually researched, designed, developed, deployed, marketed, sold, and critiqued today's best organizational simulations.

The coverage is divided into four sections:
* Introduction outlines the need for organizational simulation to support strategic thinking, design of unprecedented systems, and organizational learning, including the functionality and technology required to enable this support
* Behaviors covers the state of knowledge of individual, group, and team behaviors and performance, how performance can best be supported, how performance is affected by national differences, and how organizational performance can best be measured
* Modeling describes the latest approaches to modeling and simulating people, groups, teams, and organizations, as well as narrative contexts and organizational environments within which these entities act, drawing from a rich set of modeling methods and tools
* Simulations and Games illustrates a wide range of fielded simulations, games, and entertainment, including the methods and tools employed for designing, developing, deploying, and evaluating these systems, as well as the social implications for the associated communities that have emerged

Addressing all levels of organizational simulation architecture with theories and applications, and enabling technologies for each, Organizational Simulation offers students and professionals the premier reference and practical toolbox for this dynamic field.

Author Notes

WILLIAM B. ROUSE, PhD, is Executive Director of the Tennenbaum Institute at Georgia Tech and a professor in the College of Computing and the School of Industrial and Systems Engineering. Dr. Rouse has over thirty years of experience in the field of individual and organizational performance, decision support systems, and information systems. He has written hundreds of articles and book chapters, and has authored several Wiley books, including Essential Challenges of Strategic Management, and is a coeditor of Handbook of Systems Engineering and Management. He is a Fellow of IEEE, INFORMS, and HFES, as well as a member of the National Academy of Engineering.

KENNETH R. BOFF, PhD, is a Chief Scientist of the Human Effectiveness Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory, headquartered at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, in Dayton, Ohio. His research includes human engineering of complex systems, training, safety, protection, and deployment logistics. He has authored numerous articles and book chapters, and has edited several books. He is a founder and technical director of the Department of Defense Human System Information Analysis Center, and is a founding member and former chair of the DoD Reliance Human-Systems Interface Technology Panel.

William B. Rouse and Kenneth R. BoffWilliam B. RouseStephen E. CrossDee H. Andrews and Herbert H. Bell and Robert N. ShearerEva Hudlicka and Greg ZachariasGary Klein and Paul J. Feltovich and Jeffrey M. Bradshaw and David D. WoodsEduardo Salas and Joseph W. Guthrie, Jr and Katherine A. Wilson-Donnelly and Heather A. Priest and C. Shawn BurkeHelen Altman Klein and Anna Pongonis McHughJean MacMillan and Frederick J. Diedrich and Elliot E. Entin and Daniel SerfatyLeon F. McGinnisJanet H. MurrayAnuj P. Shah and Amy R. PritchettAlexander H. LevisKathleen M. CarleyStephen E. Cross and Scott FouseIrfan Essa and Aaron BobickR. Bowen Loftin and Mikel D. Petty and Ryland C. Gaskins III and Frederic D. McKenzieRichard D. Lindheim and James H. KorrisMichael Zyda and Alex Mayberry and Jesse McCree and Margaret DavisRichard M. FujimotoJ.C. Herz

Forward	p. xxi
Preface	p. xxv
Contributors	p. xxvii
1 Introduction and Overview	p. 1
Scope of Organizational Simulation	p. 2
Architecture of Organizational Simulation	p. 3
Perspectives on Organizational Simulation	p. 4
Workshop on Organizational Simulation	p. 5
Enterprise Systems	p. 6
NASA Columbia	p. 6
Command and Control - C2	p. 6
Domestic Crisis - G8	p. 7
Joint Urban Operations - JUO	p. 7
Functionality and Technology	p. 7
Overview of Book	p. 8
Introduction	p. 11
Behaviors	p. 12
Modeling	p. 12
Simulations & Games	p. 13
Conclusions	p. 14
References	p. 15
2 Strategic Thinking Via Organizational Simulation	p. 17
Abstract	p. 17
Introduction	p. 17
Strategy Questions	p. 19
How can a new strategy best be deployed?	p. 19
What are the organizational implications of a new strategy?	p. 19
How will novel situations be addressed with this strategy?	p. 20
What are the design implications of this strategy?	p. 20
What are the work implications of a new organization?	p. 21
How well will the organization perform in the environment?	p. 21
Summary	p. 21
Enterprise Integration	p. 22
Context of Challenge	p. 22
Nature of Challenge	p. 22
Organizational Issues	p. 22
Phenomena to Stimulate	p. 23
Types of Interaction Needed	p. 23
Measure of OrgSim Success	p. 23
Command & Control	p. 23
Contest of Challenge	p. 24
Nature of Challenge	p. 24
Organizational Issues	p. 24
Phenomena to Stimulate	p. 25
Types of Interaction Needed	p. 25
Measures of OrgSim Success	p. 25
Joint Urban Operations	p. 25
Context of Challenge	p. 25
Nature of Challenge	p. 26
Organizational Issues	p. 26
Phenomena to Stimulate	p. 26
Types of Interaction Needed	p. 26
Measure of OrgSim Success	p. 27
Functional Requirements	p. 27
Models of Interaction	p. 27
View and Information Flows	p. 29
Tasks & Experiences	p. 29
User Support	p. 29
Methods & Tools	p. 29
Enabling Technologies	p. 30
Conclusions	p. 33
References	p. 34
3 Using Organizational Simulation to Develop Unprecedented Systems	p. 37
Abstract	p. 37
Introduction	p. 37
Illustrations of Unprecedented Systems	p. 39
Story 1 DART	p. 40
Story 2 Robotics-Agents-People - or RAP - Teams	p. 42
Role of Teams and Culture Change	p. 43
Requirements For Organizational Simulation	p. 46
Architecture	p. 46
Process	p. 48
Scenarios	p. 50
Agents	p. 51
Measurement	p. 51
Putting it all together	p. 52
Summary	p. 52
References	p. 53
4 The Learning Organization and Organizational Simulation	p. 55
Abstract	p. 55
The Learning Organization Concept	p. 55
Organizational Simulation	p. 57
The Literature of the Learning Organization	p. 57
Philosophy of an LO	p. 57
Characteristic Activities of a Learning Organization	p. 58
The Five Disciplines	p. 59
Organizational Learning: Adaptive vs. Generative	p. 60
Activities and Processes of Good Learning Organizations	p. 60
Examples of Organizations Striving to be Effective LO's	p. 61
U.S. Department of Defense & Terrorist Organizations	p. 61
U.S. Navy's Integrated Learning Environment	p. 63
Potential Benefits to a Learning Organization From Use of Organizational Simulation	p. 65
Applications of OrgSim to the LO	p. 65
Process Modeling	p. 67
Organizational Culture Elements	p. 67
The Learning Management Maturity Model	p. 69
Sample "What If" Questions	p. 73
Conclusion	p. 74
Challenges and Opportunities	p. 74
Recommendations	p. 75
References	p. 76
5 Requirements and Approaches For Modeling Individuals Within Organizational Simulations	p. 79
Abstract	p. 79
Introduction	p. 79
Organizations Are Composed of Individuals	p. 80
Individual Behavior is not "Nominal"	p. 82
Approaches to Modeling Individuals within Organizations	p. 83
Related Research and Background Information	p. 85
Effects of Individual Differences on Decision Making	p. 85
Modeling the Individual	p. 92
Requirements For Modeling the Individual Decision-Maker	p. 96
Knowledge and Data Requirements	p. 98
Representational and Inferencing Requirements and Options	p. 105
Examples Illustrating the Two Alternative Approaches	p. 110
Modeling the Individual in Terms of a Cognitive Architecture	p. 110
Modeling the Individual in Terms of a Profile Within a Social Network	p. 116
Integrating Individual Models Within Organizational Simulations	p. 122
Integrating Cognitive Architecture Models Within Organizational Simulations	p. 122
Integrating Profile-Based Social Network Models Within Organizational Simulations	p. 123
Summary and Conclusions	p. 124
Conclusions	p. 125
Challenges	p. 126
Future Work and Research Agenda	p. 128
References	p. 128
6 Common Ground and Coordination in Joint Activity	p. 139
Abstract	p. 139
Introduction	p. 139
Criteria For Joint Activity	p. 142
Intention to Generate a Multi-Party Product	p. 142
Interdependence of the Actions of the Parties	p. 145
Requirements For Effective Coordination in Joint Activity	p. 145
Interpredictability	p. 145
Common Ground	p. 146
Directability	p. 149
The Choreography of Joint Activity	p. 149
Three-Part Phases	p. 150
Signaling	p. 151
Coordination Devices	p. 153
The Joint Action Ladder	p. 155
Coordination Costs in Choreography	p. 156
The Fundamental Common Ground Breakdown	p. 157
The Logic of the Fundamental Common Ground Breakdown	p. 157
Defections From the Basic Compact	p. 164
Making Automation a Team Player	p. 164
The Basic Compact	p. 166
Interpredictability	p. 167
Goal Negotiation	p. 171
Coordination Phases	p. 172
Attention Management	p. 173
Controlling the Costs of Coordinated Activity	p. 175
Concluding Remarks About the Challenges	p. 176
Summary	p. 177
Acknowledgements	p. 178
References	p. 178
7 Modeling Team Performance: The Basic Ingredients and Research Needs	p. 185
Abstract	p. 185
Introduction	p. 185
What Do We Know About Teams and Team Performance?	p. 186
What Is a Team?	p. 186
What Is Teamwork?	p. 187
What Is Team Performance?	p. 187
What Is Team Performance Modeling?	p. 188
A Framework For Modeling Team Performance	p. 189
Individual Characteristics	p. 189
Team Characteristics	p. 193
Task Characteristics	p. 201
Work Structure	p. 202
Modeling Tools	p. 205
Choosing Tools to Model	p. 207
Impacts of Modeling Team Performance	p. 211
Human Systems Integration	p. 211
Scenario-Based Training	p. 212
Decision Support Systems	p. 214
Prospects	p. 215
Conclusions	p. 216
References	p. 216
8 National Differences in Teamwork	p. 229
Abstract	p. 229
Introduction	p. 229
Teamwork: Current Models and Limitations	p. 231
Current Models	p. 231
Describing Applied Domains With Current Models	p. 234
Summary	p. 239
National Differences and the Mechanisms of Teams	p. 240
Relationship-Achievement	p. 242
Power Distance	p. 242
Tolerance For Uncertainty	p. 244
Hypothetical - Concrete Reasoning	p. 245
Casual Attribution	p. 246
Contrasting - Synthesizing	p. 247
The Promise of Organizational Simulation	p. 248
Acknowledgements	p. 249
References	p. 249
9 How Well Did It Work? Measuring Organizational Performance in Simulation Environments	p. 253
Abstract	p. 253
The Challenge of Understanding Organizational Performance	p. 254
Network Connectivity Enables New Organizational Structures	p. 255
Human-In-The-Loop Testing of Organizational Structures	p. 256
Models Provide a Framework For Empirical Testing	p. 257
Organizational Modeling Approach	p. 258
Communication Behavior as a Measure of Organizational Performance	p. 259
Empirical Results: Model-Based Predictions of Communication Behavior	p. 261
Experiment 1 Can Organizational Structure Be Optimized for a Mission?	p. 261
Experiment 2 Does the Benefit of Collaborative Planning Vary Under Alternative Organizational Structures?	p. 263
Experiment 3 What Happens When the Structure of an Organization is Incongruent With Its Mission?	p. 265
Conclusions	p. 269
Acknowledgements	p. 270
References	p. 270
10 Technical and Conceptual Challenges in Organizational Simulation	p. 273
Abstract	p. 273
Introduction	p. 273
Discrete Event Simulation	p. 274
Simulating Individual Circuits	p. 275
Simulating Discrete Event Logistics Systems	p. 276
Simulating Organizations	p. 279
Organizational Simulation Issues	p. 280
Warehousing as an Organization Type	p. 281
Warehouse "Facts" Catalog	p. 282
Organizing the Facts	p. 282
The Structure of a Warehouse Meta-Model	p. 284
Organizing Concepts	p. 284
Meta-Model Component Resources	p. 285
Meta-Model Components - Flow Processes	p. 287
Meta-Model Components - Control Process	p. 292
Meta-Modeling Issues	p. 295
Conclusion	p. 296
References	p. 297
11 Narrative Abstraction For Organizational Simulations	p. 299
Abstract	p. 299
Narrative and Sensemaking	p. 299
Computational Simulation, Games, and Narrative	p. 303
Abstraction in Narrative Forms	p. 310
Exploiting Narrative Designs For Organizational Simulation	p. 314
References	p. 318
12 Agent-Based Modeling and Simulation of Socio-Technical Systems	p. 323
Abstract	p. 323
Introduction: Our "World Model"	p. 323
Background	p. 324
Agent-Based Modeling and Simulation	p. 324
Socio-Technical Systems	p. 326
Modeling Socio-Technical Systems as Agent-Based Systems	p. 328
Constructing Agent-Based Simulations of Socio-Technical Systems	p. 329
Agent Models	p. 330
Environment Models	p. 335
Putting It All Into a Computer Simulation	p. 338
Duality Between Model Form and Software Architecture	p. 339
Software Interface Standards	p. 342
Time Advance and Timing Agent Interactions	p. 343
Interacting With the Design Process	p. 346
Example: The Reconfigurable Flight Simulator as an Agent-Based Simulation Architecture	p. 349
RFS Architecture	p. 349
Application of RFS to an Agent-Based Simulation of Air Traffic	p. 351
Conclusions	p. 357
Acknowledgements	p. 359
References	p. 359
13 Executable Models of Decision Making Organizations	p. 369
Abstract	p. 369
Introduction	p. 369
The Decisionmaker Model and Organization Design	p. 371
Generation of Organizational Architectures	p. 374
Modeling Cultural Attributes	p. 378
The Colored Petri Net Model of the Decision Maker	p. 380
Simulating Organizational Performance	p. 382
Conclusions	p. 386
References	p. 387
14 Organizational Design and Assessment in Cyber-Space	p. 389
Abstract	p. 389
The Nature of Organizations	p. 389
Organizations as Meta-Matrices	p. 392
Illustrative Organizations	p. 395
Assessment and Design	p. 399
What are the Key Measures of Vulnerability?	p. 399
What are the Key Indicators of Performance and Adaptability?	p. 404
Team Design	p. 404
Team Dynamics	p. 408
Potential for Dynamic Measures	p. 410
OrgAhead	p. 411
Construct	p. 412
Challenges to Team Assessment and Design in Cyber-Space	p. 414
What Data Streams are Available?	p. 415
What Are the Challenges?	p. 416
Conclusion	p. 419
Acknowledgment	p. 419
References	p. 420
15 Artificial Intelligence and Its Application to Organizational Simulation	p. 425
Abstract	p. 425
Introduction	p. 425
AI Methods	p. 428
Search	p. 429
Knowledge Representations	p. 431
Planning	p. 433
Intelligent Agents	p. 435
Applications of AI to OrgSim	p. 441
Conclusions	p. 444
References	p. 444
16 Simulating Humans	p. 447
Abstract	p. 447
Introduction	p. 448
Overview of Methods for Modeling Humans	p. 449
Manual and user-Defined Modeling of Humans	p. 450
Data-Driven Modeling of Humans	p. 451
Generating New Human Models From Data	p. 452
Modeling of Surface Mesh	p. 454
Rendering of Humans	p. 455
Overview of Methods for Animating Humans	p. 456
Key Frame-Driven Animation	p. 457
Data-Driven Animation	p. 459
Capturing Performances	p. 459
Using Captured Motions	p. 462
Physics-Driven Animation	p. 463
Goal-Driven Animation	p. 464
Concluding Remarks	p. 466
References	p. 467
17 Modeling Crowd Behavior For Military Simulation Applications	p. 471
Abstract	p. 471
Introduction	p. 472
Crowd Modeling Motivation	p. 472
Crowd Modeling and Organizational Simulation	p. 474
Crowd Modeling Study Overview and Methodology	p. 475
Crowd Simulation Requirements Analysis	p. 476
Requirements Analysis Introduction	p. 476
Requirements Analysis Process	p. 478
Application Areas and Warfare Levels	p. 482
Crowd Modeling Requirements Examples	p. 485
Crowd Modeling Requirements Comments	p. 488
Requirements Analysis Findings	p. 490
Psychological and Computational Models of Crowd Behavior	p. 491
Survey Introduction	p. 492
Psychological Research on Crowd Behavior	p. 492
Psychological and Computational Models of Crowd Behavior	p. 501
Realism of Crowd Cognition and Behavior Models	p. 503
Survey Findings	p. 505
Crowd Simulation Design Study	p. 506
Design Study Introduction	p. 507
Design Process and Goals	p. 507
Crowd Simulation Architecture	p. 508
Implementation Experiments and Results	p. 516
Design Study Findings	p. 525
Conclusions	p. 525
Summary of Findings	p. 525
Research and Development Requirements	p. 526
Expected Benefits	p. 527
Acknowledgments	p. 528
References	p. 528
18 Application of Immersive Technology For Next Generation Simulation	p. 537
Abstract	p. 537
Introduction	p. 537
Modeling Human Behavior	p. 538
Lessons From Stagecraft	p. 539
A Hybrid Approach	p. 539
The "Willing Collaborator"	p. 541
Setting Limits	p. 542
Potential For Analysis	p. 543
The "Good Borg"	p. 543
Top-Down Vs. Bottom-Up	p. 544
Bottom-Up at ICT	p. 545
Lessons From the Marketplace	p. 546
Virtual Humans	p. 546
Beyond Photo-Realism	p. 547
Sound's Good...	p. 548
Case Study: Joint Fires & Effects Trainer	p. 549
Conclusion	p. 551
References	p. 551
19 From Viz-Sim to VR to Games: How We Built a Hit Game-Based Simulation	p. 553
Abstract	p. 553
Introduction	p. 554
Where Did We Start?	p. 554
Why Did We Start Thinking About Games?	p. 555
What Does Game Development Cost?	p. 556
The Tough Issue is Team Building and Maintenance	p. 557
America's Army Development Pipeline	p. 558
Positions and Duties	p. 558
Core Game Components	p. 560
Summary	p. 569
America's Army - A Case History	p. 569
America's Army Pre-Release - August 2001	p. 570
Version 1.0 Release - July 4, 2002	p. 570
Version 1.0.1 Release - July 12, 2002	p. 572
Version 1.1.1 Release - August 1, 2002	p. 572
Version 1.2.0 Release - August 22, 2002	p. 573
Version 1.2.1 Release - August 24, 2002	p. 575
Map Pack Release - October 3, 2002	p. 575
Version 1.3.0 Release - October 10, 2002	p. 576
Version 1.4.0 Release - November 25, 2002	p. 578
Version 1.5.0 Release - December 23, 2002	p. 579
Version 1.6.0 Release - March 16, 2003	p. 580
Version 1.7.0 Release - April 21, 2003	p. 582
Electronic Entertainment Expo - May 2003	p. 582
Version 1.9.0 Release - August 8, 2003	p. 582
Version 2.0.0 Release - November 6, 2003	p. 585
Version 2.0.0a Release - December 21, 2003	p. 587
Summation - March 8, 2004	p. 588
Lessons Learned	p. 588
Conclusion	p. 589
Acknowledgments	p. 589
References	p. 589
20 Distributed Simulation and the High Level Architecture	p. 591
Abstract	p. 591
Introduction	p. 591
Historical Perspective	p. 593
The High Level Architecture	p. 594
HLA Rules	p. 595
Object Models	p. 596
The Interface Specification	p. 596
Time Management	p. 597
Conservative Time Management	p. 598
Optimistic Time Management	p. 601
Time Management in the HLA	p. 603
Conclusions	p. 605
Acknowledgements	p. 606
References	p. 606
21 Harnessing the Hive: Innovation as a Distributed Function in The Online Game Community	p. 611
Abstract	p. 611
Introduction	p. 611
R&D Estuaries: Leveraging Community-Driven Design	p. 612
Constructive Ecologies: Artifacts & Social Currency	p. 613
Beyond Collaboration: Group-To-Group Interaction	p. 616
Persistence and Accretion	p. 618
Conclusion	p. 620
References	p. 621
Author Index	p. 623

Available:*

On Order

Summary

Summary

Author Notes

Table of Contents