Control and constraint in e-learning : choosing when to choose

Every learner is on a trajectory, an individual path that involves choices about what to do next in order to learn, choices that are bounded by intrinsic and extrinsic constraints. In some cases the learner controls those choices, sometimes they are made by someone or something else, sometimes control is negotiated, or it emerges from complex interactions of many agents. Control and Constraint in E-Learning: Choosing When to Choose pulls apart that simple dynamic, examines it in detail, and explores its consequences to provide a new, theoretically grounded approach to the design of e-learning systems, to the benefit of teachers, programmers, researchers and instructional designers alike. In addition to shedding new light on traditional e-learning systems, it demonstrates that the social technologies underpinning Web 2.0 are fundamentally different in their dynamics of control and, consequently, when designed and used with care, offer benefits that significantly exceed the promise of their forebears.

Foreword	p. ix
Preface	p. xiii
Acknowledgments	p. xxii
Section I Control and Learning: A Theoretical Background
Chapter I Introducing Concepts	p. 1
Introduction	p. 1
Learning Projects and Learning Trajectories	p. 2
What is a Teacher?	p. 3
Self-Directed Learning	p. 6
E-Learning Environments	p. 7
On the Special Nature of Networked Computers	p. 14
Conclusion	p. 15
References	p. 16
Chapter II From Transactional Distance to Transactional Control	p. 18
Introduction	p. 18
Transactional Distance	p. 19
Garrison and Baynton's Model of Control	p. 25
Candy and Control	p. 26
Choice, Constraint, and Scale: Introducing Transactional Control	p. 28
Conclusion	p. 35
References	p. 36
Chapter III Making Choices: The Need For Teachers	p. 40
Introduction	p. 40
Kinds of choice	p. 40
Why is Choice so Important?	p. 41
The Significance of Choice	p. 46
Is Choice Always Good?	p. 47
How Choices May Be Made	p. 50
Is it Possible for a Learner to make Appropriate Choices without Guidance?	p. 51
Knowing When a Choice Is Made	p. 53
Conclusion	p. 54
References	p. 55
Chapter IV All About Constraints	p. 57
Introduction	p. 57
The Limits of Choice and the Role of Constraint	p. 58
Intrinsic Constraints	p. 61
Extrinsic Constraints	p. 62
A Model of Constraints	p. 70
Conclusion	p. 74
References	p. 74
Chapter V Scale	p. 77
Introduction	p. 77
Choice and Scale	p. 78
At What Scale?	p. 81
Choosing the Scale	p. 84
Hierarchies of Choice in Institutional Learning	p. 88
Bucking the Trend: Giving More Control	p. 91
Relevant Choices	p. 91
The Atomic Unit of Transactional Control	p. 93
Instructivism, Constructivism and Transactional Control	p. 94
Conclusion	p. 95
References	p. 95
Chapter VI Transactional Control in Traditional Institutional Learning	p. 97
Introduction	p. 97
Breaking Down Lessons: Some Examples	p. 98
Tentative Classifications	p. 106
An Unexpected Anomaly: Transactional Control in Socratic Dialogue	p. 107
Another Anomaly: Transactional Control in a Traditional Lecture	p. 112
A Suggested Process of Analysis	p. 113
Design Process	p. 115
Conclusion	p. 115
Summary of Section I p. 115
Section II	p. 116
References	p. 117
Section II E-Learning, Control, and Constraint
Chapter VII Electronic Publication	p. 119
Introduction	p. 119
Publishing Content	p. 120
Signposts, Not Fenceposts	p. 125
Granularity, Learning Objects, and Choice	p. 131
Conclusion	p. 136
References	p. 137
Chapter VIII Finding Good Stuff	p. 139
Introduction	p. 139
Resource-Based Learning	p. 140
Criteria for Finding Good Stuff	p. 143
Collaborative Filters and Recommender Systems	p. 146
Shared Annotations	p. 151
Adaptive Hypermedia and Intelligent Tutoring Systems	p. 153
Conclusion	p. 156
References	p. 157
Chapter IX Asynchronous Communication	p. 161
Introduction	p. 161
Transactional Control in an Online Discussion Forum	p. 162
An Example of a Discussion Forum in Detail	p. 166
Lessons Learned From the Discussion Forum	p. 180
Dialogue, Choice, and Constraint	p. 181
General Recommendations for Transactional Control in Threaded Dialogue	p. 183
Conclusion	p. 187
References	p. 187
Chapter X Synchronous Discussion	p. 189
Introduction	p. 189
Synchronous Text Chat	p. 190
Example of a Text Chat Session	p. 193
Some Approaches to Managing Synchronous Chats	p. 198
Other Synchronous Systems	p. 200
Conclusion	p. 206
References	p. 206
Chapter XI Integrated Tools and Environments	p. 208
Introduction	p. 208
Integrated Tools and Environments	p. 209
The LMS as a Controller	p. 210
Open Sources, Open Architectures, Open Frameworks	p. 218
General Issues of Control with Learning Management Systems and Stop-Gap Solutions	p. 222
Conclusion	p. 224
Summary of Section II p. 225
About Section III	p. 225
References	p. 226
Section III Designing Better E-Learning Environments
Chapter XII Social Software and E-Learning	p. 228
Introduction	p. 228
The Current Generation	p. 229
Deferred Systems	p. 230
Social Software	p. 231
A New Framework for Mediated Communication in Education	p. 236
Approaches to Online Learning Environment Design	p. 241
Conclusion	p. 244
References	p. 245
Chapter XIII Design Principles for Social Software in E-Learning	p. 248
Introduction	p. 248
Principle 1 Design for Change	p. 249
Principle 2 Use Stigmergy	p. 251
Principle 3 Survival of the Fittest	p. 255
Principle 4 Parcellate	p. 257
Principle 5 Consider the Entire System	p. 260
Principle 6 Build From the Bottom Up, Design From the Top Down	p. 262
Principle 7 Build for Trust	p. 264
Principle 8 Design for Sociability	p. 266
Conclusion	p. 266
References	p. 268
Chapter XIV Social Software in E-Learning: Beyond Blogs and Wikis	p. 271
Introduction	p. 271
Examples of Self-Organising Leaming Environments in the Context of the Eight Principles	p. 272
Two Examples in Greater Detail	p. 280
Conclusion	p. 291
References	p. 292
Chapter XV Problems with Social Software for E-Learning	p. 294
Introduction	p. 294
Sequence	p. 295
The Impoverished Dialogue of Stigmergy	p. 299
Stigmergy and Creativity	p. 302
The Written Word as Stigmergic Sign	p. 303
Are Crowds Wise?	p. 304
The Matthew Principle	p. 305
Pedagogical Concerns	p. 306
Conclusion	p. 306
References	p. 307
Chapter XVI Potential Futures of E-Learning	p. 310
Introduction	p. 310
The Future of E-Learning	p. 312
The Future of E-Learning Environments	p. 314
Imagining a Scenario or Two	p. 319
Ubiquity and Economics	p. 324
Where Next? Closer Up	p. 325
Conclusion	p. 326
References	p. 327
Glossary	p. 329
About the Authors	p. 335
Index	p. 336

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