Magnetic resonance imaging : the basics

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Title:

Personal Author:

Constantinides, Christakis, author

Publication Information:

Boca Raton : CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2014

Physical Description:

xxix, 205 pages : illustrations ; 26 cm.

ISBN:

9781482217315

Abstract:

"Preface Book Synopsis Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a rapidly developing field in basic, applied science and clinical practice. Research efforts in this field have already been recognized with five Nobel prizes, awarded to seven Nobel laureates during the last 69 years. The book begins with a general description of the phenomenon of magnetic resonance and a brief summary of Fourier transformations in two dimensions. It proceeds to examine the fundamental principles of physics for nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) signal formation and image construction. To this extent, there is a detailed reference to the mathematical formulation of MRI using the imaging equation, description of the relaxation parameters T1 and T2, and reference to specific pulse sequences and data acquisition schemes. Additionally, numerous image quantitative indices are presented, including signal, noise, signal-to-noise, contrast, and resolution. The second part of the book discusses the hardware and electronics of an MRI scanner, the typical measurements and simulations of magnetic fields based on the law of Biot-Savart, followed by an introduction to NMR spectroscopy, and to dedicated spectral techniques employing various pulse sequences. The third part discusses advanced imaging techniques. While the list may contain numerous modern applications, including cardiac MR, coronary and peripheral angiography, flow, diffusion, and functional MRI (fMRI), the focus is maintained on parallel imaging. The book is enriched with numerous worked examples and problem sets with selected solutions. Nobel Prizes in Magnetic Resonance Magnetic resonance imaging is a field that emerged right after the Second World War, as a result of experimental work that was initiated initially for spectroscopy"--provided by publisher

Subject Term:

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy

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Library	Item Barcode	Call Number	Material Type	Item Category 1	Status
Searching... PSZ JB	30000010336709	RC386.6.M34 C66 2014	Open Access Book	Book	Searching... Unknown

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Summary

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a rapidly developing field in basic applied science and clinical practice. Research efforts in this area have already been recognized with five Nobel prizes awarded to seven Nobel laureates in the past 70 years. Based on courses taught at The Johns Hopkins University, Magnetic Resonance Imaging: The Basics provides a solid introduction to this powerful technology.

The book begins with a general description of the phenomenon of magnetic resonance and a brief summary of Fourier transformations in two dimensions. It examines the fundamental principles of physics for nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) signal formation and image construction and provides a detailed explanation of the mathematical formulation of MRI. Numerous image quantitative indices are discussed, including (among others) signal, noise, signal-to-noise, contrast, and resolution.

The second part of the book examines the hardware and electronics of an MRI scanner and the typical measurements and simulations of magnetic fields. It introduces NMR spectroscopy and spectral acquisition and imaging techniques employing various pulse sequences. The final section explores the advanced imaging technique of parallel imaging.

Structured so that each chapter builds on the knowledge gained in the previous one, the book is enriched by numerous worked examples and problem sets with selected solutions, giving readers a firm grasp of the foundations of MRI technology.

Author Notes

Christakis Constantinides, PhD joined the faculty of the Mechanical Engineering Department at the University of Cyprus in September 2005. He has also acted as a consultant to his start-up firm, Chi-Biomedical Ltd. ever since. His specific research interest focuses on the study of cardiac mechanical function, computational and tissue structure modeling and characterization, hardware design, and functional and cellular tracking methods using MRI. The goal of his research efforts is the complete characterization of the electromechanical function of the heart in small animals and humans, aiming to promote the understanding of mechanisms of human disease that is predominantly underlined by genetic causes.

Foreword	p. xiii
Book Synopsis	p. xv
Nobel Prizes in Magnetic Resonance	p. xvii
Introduction	p. xix
About the Author	p. xxi
List of Abbreviations	p. xxiii
List of Symbols	p. xxvii
1 Fourier Transformations	p. 1
1.1 Introduction	p. 1
1.2 Mathematical Representation of Images	p. 1
1.3 Continuous Images	p. 2
1.4 Delta Function	p. 2
1.5 Separable Images	p. 2
1.6 Linear Shift Invariant (LSI) Systems	p. 2
1.7 Cascade Systems	p. 3
1.7.1 Serial Cascade of LSI Systems	p. 3
1.7.2 Parallel Cascade of LSI Systems	p. 5
1.8 Stability	p. 6
1.9 Fourier Transformation and Inverse FT	p. 6
1.10 Properties of Fourier Transformations	p. 6
1.11 Frequency Response	p. 7
1.12 Discrete Images and Systems	p. 8
1.13 Separable Images	p. 8
1.14 Linear Shift Invariant Systems	p. 9
1.15 Frequency Response: Point Spread Sequence	p. 9
1.16 Discrete Fourier Transform and Its Inverse	p. 9
1.17 Properties of Discrete Fourier Transforms	p. 11
Selected Readings	p. 13
2 Fundamentals of Magnetic Resonance I: Basic Physics	p. 15
2.1 Introduction	p. 15
2.2 Quantum Mechanical Description of NMR: Energy Level Diagrams	p. 16
2.3 Boltzmann Statistics	p. 17
2.4 Pulsed and Continuous Wave NMR	p. 17
2.5 Spin Quantum Numbers and Charge Densities	p. 18
2.6 Angular Momentum and Precession	p. 18
2.7 Overview of MR Instrumentation	p. 19
2.8 The Classical View of NMR: A Macroscopic Approach	p. 20
2.8.1 The Net Magnetization Vector	p. 20
2.9 Rotating Frame and Laboratory Frame	p. 21
2.10 RF Excitation and Detection	p. 21
2.11 Molecular Spin Relaxation: Free Induction Decay	p. 22
2.11.1 Relaxation Mechanisms	p. 22
2.11.2 Mechanism of Relaxation Processes: T 1 Relaxation	p. 23
2.11.3 Mechanism of Relaxation Processes: T 2 Relaxation	p. 24
2.12 T 1 and T 2 Measurements	p. 24
2.12.1 Measurement of T 1 and T 2	p. 24
2.12.2 Saturation Recovery: T 1 Measurement	p. 25
2.12.3 Spin-Echo: T 2 Measurement	p. 25
2.12.4 T 1 and T 2 in Solids and Liquids	p. 25
2.13 Relaxation Times in Biological Tissues	p. 26
2.13.1 Liquid State: Small and Large Macromolecules	p. 26
2.13.2 Clinical Correlations	p. 26
Selected Readings	p. 26
3 The Molecular Environment and Relaxation	p. 29
3.1 Introduction	p. 29
3.2 Biophysical Aspects of Relaxation Times	p. 29
3.3 Spectral Density and Correlation Times	p. 30
3.4 T 1 and T 2 Relaxation	p. 30
3.5 Quadrupolar Moments	p. 32
3.5.1 Biophysical Properties of Quadrupolar Nuclei	p. 33
3.5.1.1 Dipolar Interactions	p. 33
3.5.1.2 Quadrupolar Interactions	p. 34
3.5.1.3 Quadrupolar Effects on Relaxation Times	p. 35
3.5.1.4 NMR Visibility of the Sodium Nucleus	p. 36
Selected Readings	p. 38
4 Fundamentals of Magnetic Resonance II: Imaging	p. 39
4.1 Introduction	p. 39
4.2 Magnetic Field Gradients	p. 39
4.3 Spin-Warp Imaging and Imaging Basics	p. 41
4.4 Slice Selection	p. 41
4.5 Multislice and Oblique Excitations	p. 43
4.6 Frequency Encoding	p. 45
4.6.1 Signal from a Point and Multiple Objects	p. 47
4.7 Phase Encoding	p. 48
4.7.1 Composite Signal from a Point and Multiple Objects	p. 49
4.8 Fourier Transformation and Image Reconstruction	p. 50
Selected Readings	p. 50
5 Fundamentals of Magnetic Resonance III: The Formalism of k-Space	p. 53
5.1 Introduction	p. 53
5.2 MRI Signal Formulation	p. 54
5.3 k-Space Formalism and Trajectories	p. 54
5.4 Concept of Pulse Sequences	p. 57
5.5 Echo Planar Imaging	p. 58
Selected Readings	p. 59
6 Pulse Sequences	p. 61
6.1 Introduction	p. 61
6.2 T 1 , T 2 , and Proton Density-Weighted Images	p. 61
6.3 Saturation Recovery, Spin-Echo, Inversion Recovery	p. 61
6.3.1 Saturation Recovery	p. 61
6.3.2 Spin-Echo	p. 61
6.3.3 Inversion Recovery	p. 63
6.4 Gradient-Echo Imaging: FLASH, SSFP, and STEAM	p. 64
6.4.1 Fast Low-Angle Shot (FLASH)	p. 64
6.4.1.1 Spoiling	p. 67
6.4.2 Steady-State Free Precession (SSFP)	p. 67
6.4.3 Stimulated Echoes (STEAM)	p. 69
6.4.4 Multislice Imaging	p. 70
6.4.5 Volume Imaging	p. 71
6.5 Bloch Equation Formulation and Simulations	p. 72
6.6 Technical Limits and Safety	p. 72
Selected Readings	p. 73
7 Introduction to Instrumentation	p. 75
7.1 Introduction	p. 75
7.2 Magnets and Designs	p. 75
7.2.1 Resistive Electromagnets	p. 78
7.2.2 Permanent Magnets	p. 79
7.2.3 Superconducting	p. 79
7.3 Stability, Homogeneity, and Fringe Field	p. 80
7.4 Gradient Coils	p. 81
7.4.1 Maxwell Pair and Golay Coils	p. 82
7.4.2 Eddy Currents	p. 85
7.4.3 Switching Speed	p. 85
7.5 RF Coils	p. 85
7.5.1 Surface Coils	p. 86
7.5.2 Volume Coils: Birdcage	p. 87
7.5.3 Specialized Coil Types: Phased Arrays	p. 89
7.6 RF Decoupling	p. 90
7.7 B Field Distributions and Simulations	p. 91
7.8 Safety Issues	p. 91
Selected Readings	p. 93
8 Tour of an MRI Facility	p. 95
8.1 Introduction	p. 95
8.2 Hardware	p. 97
8.2.1 Instrumentation: Magnets	p. 98
8.2.1.1 Permanent Magnets	p. 98
8.2.1.2 Electromagnets	p. 98
8.2.1.3 Superconducting Magnets	p. 98
8.2.2 Gradient Coils	p. 99
8.2.3 Radio Frequency Transmission and Reception	p. 99
8.3 Imaging	p. 100
8.4 Generation of MRI Images	p. 100
8.5 Safety	p. 102
9 Signal, Noise, Resolution, and Image Contrast	p. 103
9.1 Signal and Noise Sources in MRI	p. 103
9.2 Noise Sources	p. 103
9.2.1 Detection Coil Noise Effects	p. 104
9.2.2 Sample Noise Effects	p. 104
9.2.2.1 Dielectric Losses	p. 105
9.2.2.2 Inductive Losses	p. 105
9.3 Signal-to-Noise Ratio	p. 106
9.3.1 Optimizing SNR Performance in NMR Systems	p. 107
9.4 Contrast-to-Noise Ratio	p. 109
9.5 Tissue Parameters and Image Dependence	p. 109
9.6 Imaging Parameters and Image Dependence	p. 111
9.7 Resolution	p. 112
Selected Readings	p. 114
10 Spectroscopy and Spectroscopic Imaging	p. 115
10.1 Introduction to NMR Spectroscopy	p. 115
10.2 Fundamental Principles	p. 116
10.2.1 Chemical Shift	p. 116
10.2.2 Theory	p. 117
10.2.3 Resolution in Spectroscopy	p. 119
10.2.4 Spin-Spin Coupling	p. 120
10.2.4.1 Mechanism of Spin-Spin Coupling	p. 120
10.2.5 Decoupling and Nuclear Overhauser Effect (NOE)	p. 121
10.2.6 Solvent Suppression	p. 122
10.3 Localized Spectroscopy	p. 122
10.3.1 Surface Coils	p. 123
10.3.2 Depth Localization and Localized Spectroscopy	p. 123
10.3.2.1 DRESS	p. 123
10.3.2.2 Rotating Frame Zeugmatography	p. 123
10.3.2.3 1D-CSI	p. 124
10.3.2.4 2D- or 3D-CSI	p. 124
10.3.2.5 PRESS	p. 125
10.3.2.6 STEAM	p. 125
10.3.2.7 PRESS and STEAM	p. 125
10.3.2.8 ISIS	p. 125
10.4 Imaging Equation and Spectroscopic Imaging	p. 126
10.4.1 Frequency-Selective Pulses: Frequency Selection	p. 127
10.4.2 Quantification	p. 128
10.4.3 Spectroscopic Imaging	p. 128
10.4.4 Artifacts in Spectroscopy	p. 130
10.4.4.1 Delayed Acquisition of FIDs	p. 130
10.4.4.2 Short T 2 Moieties Leading to Signal Loss	p. 130
10.4.5 Fourier Bleed	p. 133
10.4.6 Spectral Filtering	p. 134
Selected Readings	p. 134
11 Advanced Imaging Techniques: Parallel Imaging	p. 135
11.1 Introduction to Parallel Imaging	p. 135
11.2 Parallel Imaging Fundamentals	p. 135
11.2.1 Principles of PI	p. 135
11.2.2 SENSE, SMASH, and GRAPPA	p. 136
11.2.3 SMASH and GRAPPA	p. 138
11.2.4 Coil Sensitivity Determination and Autocalibration Procedures	p. 139
11.3 Transmit Phased Arrays	p. 140
Problem Sets	p. 143
Multiple Choice Questions	p. 159
Solutions to Selected Problems	p. 167
Answers to Multiple Choice Questions	p. 187
Glossary	p. 189
Bibliography	p. 195
Index	p. 201

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Summary

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Author Notes

Table of Contents