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Library | Item Barcode | Call Number | Material Type | Item Category 1 | Status |
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Searching... | 30000010336709 | RC386.6.M34 C66 2014 | Open Access Book | Book | Searching... |
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Summary
Summary
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a rapidly developing field in basic applied science and clinical practice. Research efforts in this area have already been recognized with five Nobel prizes awarded to seven Nobel laureates in the past 70 years. Based on courses taught at The Johns Hopkins University, Magnetic Resonance Imaging: The Basics provides a solid introduction to this powerful technology.
The book begins with a general description of the phenomenon of magnetic resonance and a brief summary of Fourier transformations in two dimensions. It examines the fundamental principles of physics for nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) signal formation and image construction and provides a detailed explanation of the mathematical formulation of MRI. Numerous image quantitative indices are discussed, including (among others) signal, noise, signal-to-noise, contrast, and resolution.
The second part of the book examines the hardware and electronics of an MRI scanner and the typical measurements and simulations of magnetic fields. It introduces NMR spectroscopy and spectral acquisition and imaging techniques employing various pulse sequences. The final section explores the advanced imaging technique of parallel imaging.
Structured so that each chapter builds on the knowledge gained in the previous one, the book is enriched by numerous worked examples and problem sets with selected solutions, giving readers a firm grasp of the foundations of MRI technology.
Author Notes
Christakis Constantinides, PhD joined the faculty of the Mechanical Engineering Department at the University of Cyprus in September 2005. He has also acted as a consultant to his start-up firm, Chi-Biomedical Ltd. ever since. His specific research interest focuses on the study of cardiac mechanical function, computational and tissue structure modeling and characterization, hardware design, and functional and cellular tracking methods using MRI. The goal of his research efforts is the complete characterization of the electromechanical function of the heart in small animals and humans, aiming to promote the understanding of mechanisms of human disease that is predominantly underlined by genetic causes.
Table of Contents
Foreword | p. xiii |
Book Synopsis | p. xv |
Nobel Prizes in Magnetic Resonance | p. xvii |
Introduction | p. xix |
About the Author | p. xxi |
List of Abbreviations | p. xxiii |
List of Symbols | p. xxvii |
1 Fourier Transformations | p. 1 |
1.1 Introduction | p. 1 |
1.2 Mathematical Representation of Images | p. 1 |
1.3 Continuous Images | p. 2 |
1.4 Delta Function | p. 2 |
1.5 Separable Images | p. 2 |
1.6 Linear Shift Invariant (LSI) Systems | p. 2 |
1.7 Cascade Systems | p. 3 |
1.7.1 Serial Cascade of LSI Systems | p. 3 |
1.7.2 Parallel Cascade of LSI Systems | p. 5 |
1.8 Stability | p. 6 |
1.9 Fourier Transformation and Inverse FT | p. 6 |
1.10 Properties of Fourier Transformations | p. 6 |
1.11 Frequency Response | p. 7 |
1.12 Discrete Images and Systems | p. 8 |
1.13 Separable Images | p. 8 |
1.14 Linear Shift Invariant Systems | p. 9 |
1.15 Frequency Response: Point Spread Sequence | p. 9 |
1.16 Discrete Fourier Transform and Its Inverse | p. 9 |
1.17 Properties of Discrete Fourier Transforms | p. 11 |
Selected Readings | p. 13 |
2 Fundamentals of Magnetic Resonance I: Basic Physics | p. 15 |
2.1 Introduction | p. 15 |
2.2 Quantum Mechanical Description of NMR: Energy Level Diagrams | p. 16 |
2.3 Boltzmann Statistics | p. 17 |
2.4 Pulsed and Continuous Wave NMR | p. 17 |
2.5 Spin Quantum Numbers and Charge Densities | p. 18 |
2.6 Angular Momentum and Precession | p. 18 |
2.7 Overview of MR Instrumentation | p. 19 |
2.8 The Classical View of NMR: A Macroscopic Approach | p. 20 |
2.8.1 The Net Magnetization Vector | p. 20 |
2.9 Rotating Frame and Laboratory Frame | p. 21 |
2.10 RF Excitation and Detection | p. 21 |
2.11 Molecular Spin Relaxation: Free Induction Decay | p. 22 |
2.11.1 Relaxation Mechanisms | p. 22 |
2.11.2 Mechanism of Relaxation Processes: T 1 Relaxation | p. 23 |
2.11.3 Mechanism of Relaxation Processes: T 2 Relaxation | p. 24 |
2.12 T 1 and T 2 Measurements | p. 24 |
2.12.1 Measurement of T 1 and T 2 | p. 24 |
2.12.2 Saturation Recovery: T 1 Measurement | p. 25 |
2.12.3 Spin-Echo: T 2 Measurement | p. 25 |
2.12.4 T 1 and T 2 in Solids and Liquids | p. 25 |
2.13 Relaxation Times in Biological Tissues | p. 26 |
2.13.1 Liquid State: Small and Large Macromolecules | p. 26 |
2.13.2 Clinical Correlations | p. 26 |
Selected Readings | p. 26 |
3 The Molecular Environment and Relaxation | p. 29 |
3.1 Introduction | p. 29 |
3.2 Biophysical Aspects of Relaxation Times | p. 29 |
3.3 Spectral Density and Correlation Times | p. 30 |
3.4 T 1 and T 2 Relaxation | p. 30 |
3.5 Quadrupolar Moments | p. 32 |
3.5.1 Biophysical Properties of Quadrupolar Nuclei | p. 33 |
3.5.1.1 Dipolar Interactions | p. 33 |
3.5.1.2 Quadrupolar Interactions | p. 34 |
3.5.1.3 Quadrupolar Effects on Relaxation Times | p. 35 |
3.5.1.4 NMR Visibility of the Sodium Nucleus | p. 36 |
Selected Readings | p. 38 |
4 Fundamentals of Magnetic Resonance II: Imaging | p. 39 |
4.1 Introduction | p. 39 |
4.2 Magnetic Field Gradients | p. 39 |
4.3 Spin-Warp Imaging and Imaging Basics | p. 41 |
4.4 Slice Selection | p. 41 |
4.5 Multislice and Oblique Excitations | p. 43 |
4.6 Frequency Encoding | p. 45 |
4.6.1 Signal from a Point and Multiple Objects | p. 47 |
4.7 Phase Encoding | p. 48 |
4.7.1 Composite Signal from a Point and Multiple Objects | p. 49 |
4.8 Fourier Transformation and Image Reconstruction | p. 50 |
Selected Readings | p. 50 |
5 Fundamentals of Magnetic Resonance III: The Formalism of k-Space | p. 53 |
5.1 Introduction | p. 53 |
5.2 MRI Signal Formulation | p. 54 |
5.3 k-Space Formalism and Trajectories | p. 54 |
5.4 Concept of Pulse Sequences | p. 57 |
5.5 Echo Planar Imaging | p. 58 |
Selected Readings | p. 59 |
6 Pulse Sequences | p. 61 |
6.1 Introduction | p. 61 |
6.2 T 1 , T 2 , and Proton Density-Weighted Images | p. 61 |
6.3 Saturation Recovery, Spin-Echo, Inversion Recovery | p. 61 |
6.3.1 Saturation Recovery | p. 61 |
6.3.2 Spin-Echo | p. 61 |
6.3.3 Inversion Recovery | p. 63 |
6.4 Gradient-Echo Imaging: FLASH, SSFP, and STEAM | p. 64 |
6.4.1 Fast Low-Angle Shot (FLASH) | p. 64 |
6.4.1.1 Spoiling | p. 67 |
6.4.2 Steady-State Free Precession (SSFP) | p. 67 |
6.4.3 Stimulated Echoes (STEAM) | p. 69 |
6.4.4 Multislice Imaging | p. 70 |
6.4.5 Volume Imaging | p. 71 |
6.5 Bloch Equation Formulation and Simulations | p. 72 |
6.6 Technical Limits and Safety | p. 72 |
Selected Readings | p. 73 |
7 Introduction to Instrumentation | p. 75 |
7.1 Introduction | p. 75 |
7.2 Magnets and Designs | p. 75 |
7.2.1 Resistive Electromagnets | p. 78 |
7.2.2 Permanent Magnets | p. 79 |
7.2.3 Superconducting | p. 79 |
7.3 Stability, Homogeneity, and Fringe Field | p. 80 |
7.4 Gradient Coils | p. 81 |
7.4.1 Maxwell Pair and Golay Coils | p. 82 |
7.4.2 Eddy Currents | p. 85 |
7.4.3 Switching Speed | p. 85 |
7.5 RF Coils | p. 85 |
7.5.1 Surface Coils | p. 86 |
7.5.2 Volume Coils: Birdcage | p. 87 |
7.5.3 Specialized Coil Types: Phased Arrays | p. 89 |
7.6 RF Decoupling | p. 90 |
7.7 B Field Distributions and Simulations | p. 91 |
7.8 Safety Issues | p. 91 |
Selected Readings | p. 93 |
8 Tour of an MRI Facility | p. 95 |
8.1 Introduction | p. 95 |
8.2 Hardware | p. 97 |
8.2.1 Instrumentation: Magnets | p. 98 |
8.2.1.1 Permanent Magnets | p. 98 |
8.2.1.2 Electromagnets | p. 98 |
8.2.1.3 Superconducting Magnets | p. 98 |
8.2.2 Gradient Coils | p. 99 |
8.2.3 Radio Frequency Transmission and Reception | p. 99 |
8.3 Imaging | p. 100 |
8.4 Generation of MRI Images | p. 100 |
8.5 Safety | p. 102 |
9 Signal, Noise, Resolution, and Image Contrast | p. 103 |
9.1 Signal and Noise Sources in MRI | p. 103 |
9.2 Noise Sources | p. 103 |
9.2.1 Detection Coil Noise Effects | p. 104 |
9.2.2 Sample Noise Effects | p. 104 |
9.2.2.1 Dielectric Losses | p. 105 |
9.2.2.2 Inductive Losses | p. 105 |
9.3 Signal-to-Noise Ratio | p. 106 |
9.3.1 Optimizing SNR Performance in NMR Systems | p. 107 |
9.4 Contrast-to-Noise Ratio | p. 109 |
9.5 Tissue Parameters and Image Dependence | p. 109 |
9.6 Imaging Parameters and Image Dependence | p. 111 |
9.7 Resolution | p. 112 |
Selected Readings | p. 114 |
10 Spectroscopy and Spectroscopic Imaging | p. 115 |
10.1 Introduction to NMR Spectroscopy | p. 115 |
10.2 Fundamental Principles | p. 116 |
10.2.1 Chemical Shift | p. 116 |
10.2.2 Theory | p. 117 |
10.2.3 Resolution in Spectroscopy | p. 119 |
10.2.4 Spin-Spin Coupling | p. 120 |
10.2.4.1 Mechanism of Spin-Spin Coupling | p. 120 |
10.2.5 Decoupling and Nuclear Overhauser Effect (NOE) | p. 121 |
10.2.6 Solvent Suppression | p. 122 |
10.3 Localized Spectroscopy | p. 122 |
10.3.1 Surface Coils | p. 123 |
10.3.2 Depth Localization and Localized Spectroscopy | p. 123 |
10.3.2.1 DRESS | p. 123 |
10.3.2.2 Rotating Frame Zeugmatography | p. 123 |
10.3.2.3 1D-CSI | p. 124 |
10.3.2.4 2D- or 3D-CSI | p. 124 |
10.3.2.5 PRESS | p. 125 |
10.3.2.6 STEAM | p. 125 |
10.3.2.7 PRESS and STEAM | p. 125 |
10.3.2.8 ISIS | p. 125 |
10.4 Imaging Equation and Spectroscopic Imaging | p. 126 |
10.4.1 Frequency-Selective Pulses: Frequency Selection | p. 127 |
10.4.2 Quantification | p. 128 |
10.4.3 Spectroscopic Imaging | p. 128 |
10.4.4 Artifacts in Spectroscopy | p. 130 |
10.4.4.1 Delayed Acquisition of FIDs | p. 130 |
10.4.4.2 Short T 2 Moieties Leading to Signal Loss | p. 130 |
10.4.5 Fourier Bleed | p. 133 |
10.4.6 Spectral Filtering | p. 134 |
Selected Readings | p. 134 |
11 Advanced Imaging Techniques: Parallel Imaging | p. 135 |
11.1 Introduction to Parallel Imaging | p. 135 |
11.2 Parallel Imaging Fundamentals | p. 135 |
11.2.1 Principles of PI | p. 135 |
11.2.2 SENSE, SMASH, and GRAPPA | p. 136 |
11.2.3 SMASH and GRAPPA | p. 138 |
11.2.4 Coil Sensitivity Determination and Autocalibration Procedures | p. 139 |
11.3 Transmit Phased Arrays | p. 140 |
Problem Sets | p. 143 |
Multiple Choice Questions | p. 159 |
Solutions to Selected Problems | p. 167 |
Answers to Multiple Choice Questions | p. 187 |
Glossary | p. 189 |
Bibliography | p. 195 |
Index | p. 201 |