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Summary
Summary
The years 2006 and 2007 mark a dramatic change of peoples view regarding c- mate change and energy consumption. The new IPCC report makes clear that - mankind plays a dominant role on climate change due to CO emissions from en- 2 ergy consumption, and that a significant reduction in CO emissions is necessary 2 within decades. At the same time, the supply of fossil energy sources like coal, oil, and natural gas becomes less reliable. In spring 2008, the oil price rose beyond 100 $/barrel for the first time in history. It is commonly accepted today that we have to reduce the use of fossil fuels to cut down the dependency on the supply countries and to reduce CO emissions. The use of renewable energy sources and 2 increased energy efficiency are the main strategies to achieve this goal. In both strategies, heat and cold storage will play an important role. People use energy in different forms, as heat, as mechanical energy, and as light. With the discovery of fire, humankind was the first time able to supply heat and light when needed. About 2000 years ago, the Romans started to use ceramic tiles to store heat in under floor heating systems. Even when the fire was out, the room stayed warm. Since ancient times, people also know how to cool food with ice as cold storage.
Author Notes
Dr. Harald Mehling, born: 03.08.1966
Education: M.A. (SUNY Buffalo, USA), 1992; Diploma Physics, University of Würzburg (Germany), 1995; Ph.D., University of Würzburg (Germany), 1998
Since 1995 working at the Bavarian Center for applied Energy Research, since 1998 Group leader "Latent heat storage"
Coordinator of the BMWA funded strategic project "Innovative PCM-technology" (budget about 6 Mio e, 1999-2004)
Organizer of two workshops on latent heat storage
Author or co-author of about 50 publications, with more than 20 reviewed
Books contributions (4 chapters): Thermal energy storage for sustainable energy consumption - fundamentals, case studies and design; NATO Science series II. Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry - Vol. 234, Springer, 2007, ISBN 978-1-4020-5289-7 Editor: H.Ö.Paksoy
Luisa F. Cabeza is Professor on Thermal Engineering at the University of Lleida (Lleida, Spain). She graduated on Chemical Engineering and Industrial Engineering in 1992 at University Ramon Llull (Barcelona, Spain), in 1995 she got an MBA and in 1996 her PhD on Industrial Engineering at the same university. From 1996 to 1998 she worked at the Eastern Regional Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture (Philadelphia, USA). In 1999 she joined the University of Lleida as Assistant Professor, and she became Full Professor in 2006. She lead the Research Group on Applied Energy at the same university, today a research group with 25 researchers, recognised by several Spanish Agencies for its work.
Table of Contents
1 Basic thermodynamics of thermal energy storage | p. 1 |
1.1 Methods for thermal energy storage | p. 1 |
1.1.1 Sensible heat | p. 1 |
1.1.2 Latent heat of solid-liquid phase change | p. 2 |
1.1.3 Latent heat of liquid-vapor phase change | p. 4 |
1.1.4 Heat of chemical reactions | p. 5 |
1.2 Potential applications of latent heat storage with solid-liquid phase change | p. 6 |
1.2.1 Temperature control | p. 6 |
1.2.2 Storage of heat or cold with high storage density | p. 7 |
1.3 References | p. 9 |
2 Solid-liquid phase change materials | p. 11 |
2.1 Physical, technical, and economic requirements | p. 11 |
2.2 Classes of materials | p. 13 |
2.2.1 Overview | p. 13 |
2.2.2 Detailed discussion | p. 15 |
2.3 Typical material problems and possible solutions | p. 26 |
2.3.1 Phase separation solved by mixing, gelling, or thickening | p. 26 |
2.3.2 Subcooling and methods to reduce it | p. 34 |
2.3.3 Encapsulation to prevent leakage and improve heat transfer | p. 37 |
2.3.4 Mechanical stability and thermal conductivity improved by composite materials | p. 39 |
2.3.4.1 Mechanical stability | p. 39 |
2.3.4.2 Thermal conductivity | p. 40 |
2.4 Commercial PCM, PCM composite materials, and encapsulated PCM | p. 41 |
2.4.1 PCM | p. 42 |
2.4.2 PCM composite materials | p. 43 |
2.4.2.1 PCM composite materials to improve handling and applicability | p. 44 |
2.4.2.2 PCM-graphite composites to increase the thermal conductivity | p. 45 |
2.4.3 Encapsulated PCM | p. 48 |
2.4.3.1 Examples of microencapsulation | p. 49 |
2.4.3.2 Examples of microencapsulation | p. 51 |
2.5 References | p. 52 |
3 Determination of physical and technical properties | p. 57 |
3.1 Definition of material and object properties | p. 57 |
3.2 Stored heat of materials | p. 59 |
3.2.1 Basics of calorirnetry | p. 59 |
3.2.2 Problems in doing measurements on PCM | p. 64 |
3.2.3 Problems in presenting data on PCM | p. 66 |
3.2.4 Calorimeter types and working principles | p. 69 |
3.2.4.1 Differential scanning calorimetry in dynamic mode | p. 69 |
3.2.4.2 Differential scanning calorimetry in steps mode | p. 78 |
3.2.4.3 Differential scanning calorimetry with temperature modulation (m-DSC) | p. 80 |
3.2.4.4 T-History method | p. 80 |
3.3 Heat storage and heat release of PCM-objects | p. 84 |
3.3.1 Air and other gases as heat transfer medium | p. 85 |
3.3.2 Water and other liquids as heat transfer medium | p. 89 |
3.3.2.1 Mixing calorimeter | p. 89 |
3.3.2.2 Setup derived from power compensated DSC | p. 90 |
3.4 Thermal conductivity of materials | p. 91 |
3.4.1 Stationary methods | p. 92 |
3.4.2 Dynamic methods | p. 93 |
3.5 Cycling stability of PCM, PCM-composites, and PCM-objects | p. 95 |
3.5.1 Cycling stability with respect to the stored heat | p. 95 |
3.5.2 Cycling stability with respect to heat transfer | p. 96 |
3.6 Compatibility of PCM with other materials | p. 97 |
3.6.1 Corrosion of metals | p. 98 |
3.6.2 Migration of components in plastics | p. 101 |
3.7 References | p. 102 |
4 Heat transfer basics | p. 105 |
4.1 Analytical models | p. 106 |
4.1.1 1-dimensional semi-infinite PCM layer | p. 106 |
4.1.2 1-dimensional semi-infinite PCM layer with boundary effects | p. 108 |
4.1.3 Cylindrical and spherical geometry | p. 113 |
4.1.4 Layer with finite thickness | p. 118 |
4.1.5 Summary and conclusion for analytical models | p. 119 |
4.2 Numerical models | p. 120 |
4.2.1 1-dimensional PCM layer | p. 120 |
4.2.2 Inclusion of subcooling using the enthalpy method | p. 126 |
4.2.3 Relation between h(T) functions and phase diagrams | p. 128 |
4.3 Modellization using commercial software | p. 131 |
4.4 Comparison of simulated and experimental results | p. 132 |
4.4.1 1-dimensional PCM layer without subcooling | p. 132 |
4.4.2 1-dimensional PCM layer with subcooling | p. 133 |
4.5 Summary and conclusion | p. 134 |
4.6 References | p. 135 |
5 Design of latent heat storages | p. 137 |
5.1 Boundary conditions and basic design options | p. 137 |
5.1.1 Boundary conditions on a storage | p. 137 |
5.1.2 Basic design options | p. 138 |
5.2 Overview on storage types | p. 141 |
5.3 Storages with heat transfer on the storage surface | p. 142 |
5.3.1 Insulated environment | p. 143 |
5.3.1.1 Construction principle and typical performance | p. 143 |
5.3.1.2 Example | p. 143 |
5.3.1.3 Heat transfer calculation | p. 144 |
5.3.2 No insulation and good thermal contact between storage and demand | p. 145 |
5.3.2.1 Construction principle and typical performance | p. 145 |
5.3.2.2 Example | p. 145 |
5.3.2.3 Heat transfer calculation | p. 145 |
5.4 Storages with heat transfer on internal heat transfer surfaces | p. 146 |
5.4.1 Heat exchanger type | p. 146 |
5.4.1.1 Construction principle and typical performance | p. 147 |
5.4.1.2 Example | p. 148 |
5.4.1.3 Heat transfer calculation | p. 149 |
5.4.1.4 Further information | p. 158 |
5.4.2 Direct contact type | p. 158 |
5.4.2.1 Construction principle and typical performance | p. 159 |
5.4.2.2 Example | p. 160 |
5.4.2.3 Heat transfer calculation | p. 161 |
5.4.2.4 Further information | p. 161 |
5.4.3 Module type | p. 162 |
5.4.3.1 Construction principle and typical performance | p. 162 |
5.4.3.2 Examples | p. 163 |
5.4.3.3 Heat transfer calculation | p. 164 |
5.4.3.4 Further information | p. 168 |
5.5 Storages with heat transfer by exchanging the heat storage medium | p. 168 |
5.5.1 Slurry type | p. 169 |
5.5.1.1 Construction principle and typical performance | p. 169 |
5.5.1.2 Example | p. 170 |
5.5.1.3 Heat transfer calculation | p. 172 |
5.5.1.4 Further information | p. 173 |
5.5.2 Sensible liquid type | p. 174 |
5.5.2.1 Construction principle and typical performance | p. 174 |
5.5.2.2 Example | p. 175 |
5.5.2.3 Heat transfer calculation | p. 176 |
5.5.2.4 Further information | p. 176 |
5.6 References | p. 177 |
6 Integration of active storages into systems | p. 181 |
6.1 Integration goal | p. 181 |
6.2 Integration concepts | p. 182 |
6.2.1 General concepts | p. 182 |
6.2.2 Special examples | p. 184 |
6.3 Cascade storages | p. 185 |
6.4 Simulation and optimization of systems | p. 188 |
6.5 References | p. 189 |
7 Applications in transport and storage containers | p. 191 |
7.1 Basics | p. 191 |
7.1.1 Ideal cooling of an object in ambient air | p. 191 |
7.1.2 Ideal cooling of an insulated object in ambient air | p. 193 |
7.1.3 Ideal cooling of an insulated object with PCM in ambient air | p. 195 |
7.1.4 Real cooling of an insulated object with PCM in ambient air | p. 196 |
7.2 Examples | p. 197 |
7.2.1 Multi purpose transport boxes and containers | p. 197 |
7.2.2 Thermal management system | p. 198 |
7.2.3 Containers for food and beverages | p. 199 |
7.2.4 Medical applications | p. 200 |
7.2.5 Electronic equipment | p. 201 |
7.3 References | p. 202 |
8 Applications for the human body | p. 205 |
8.1 Basics | p. 205 |
8.1.1 Energy balance of the human body | p. 205 |
8.1.2 Potential of PCM | p. 206 |
8.1.3 Methods to apply the PCM | p. 207 |
8.1.3.1 Macroencapsulated PCM | p. 207 |
8.1.3.2 Microencapsulated PCM | p. 207 |
8.1.3.3 Composite materials | p. 209 |
8.2 Examples | p. 209 |
8.2.1 Pocket heater | p. 210 |
8.2.2 Vests for different applications | p. 210 |
8.2.3 Clothes and underwear | p. 211 |
8.2.4 Kidney belt | p. 212 |
8.2.5 Plumeaus and sleeping bags | p. 212 |
8.2.6 Shoe inlets | p. 213 |
8.2.7 Medical applications | p. 214 |
8.3 References | p. 214 |
9 Applications for heating and cooling in buildings | p. 217 |
9.1 Basics of space heating and cooling | p. 218 |
9.1.1 Human comfort requirements | p. 218 |
9.1.2 Heat production, transfer, and storage in buildings | p. 220 |
9.1.3 Potential of using PCM | p. 220 |
9.1.3.1 Potential of PCM for temperature control | p. 221 |
9.1.3.2 Potential of PCM for heat or cold storage with high storage density | p. 225 |
9.1.4 Natural and artificial heat and cold sources | p. 227 |
9.1.4.1 Space cooling | p. 227 |
9.1.4.2 Space heating | p. 231 |
9.1.5 Heat transfer | p. 233 |
9.1.5.1 Heating or cooling from a surface | p. 233 |
9.1.5.2 Heating or cooling by supplying hot or cold air | p. 234 |
9.2 Examples for space cooling | p. 234 |
9.2.1 Building materials | p. 235 |
9.2.1.1 Gypsum plasterboards with microencapsulated paraffin | p. 236 |
9.2.1.2 Plaster with microencapsulated paraffin | p. 237 |
9.2.1.3 Concrete with microencapsulated paraffin | p. 238 |
9.2.1.4 Panels with shape-stabilized paraffin | p. 240 |
9.2.2 Building components | p. 241 |
9.2.2.1 Ceiling with PCM | p. 241 |
9.2.2.2 Blinds with PCM | p. 243 |
9.2.3 Active systems using air as heat transfer fluid | p. 244 |
9.2.3.1 Systems integrated into the ceiling | p. 245 |
9.2.3.2 Systems integrated into the wall | p. 246 |
9.2.3.3 Systems integrated into the floor | p. 247 |
9.2.3.4 Decentralized cooling and ventilation unit | p. 249 |
9.2.3.5 Systems integrated into a ventilation channel | p. 252 |
9.2.4 Active building materials and components using a liquid heat transfer fluid for heat rejection | p. 254 |
9.2.4.1 PCM-plaster with capillary sheets | p. 255 |
9.2.4.2 Cooling ceiling with PCM-plasterboard | p. 256 |
9.2.5 Storages with active heat supply and rejection using a liquid heat transfer fluid | p. 256 |
9.2.5.1 Heat exchanger and module type storages using artificial ice | p. 258 |
9.2.5.2 Heat exchanger and module type storages using other PCM than ice | p. 263 |
9.2.5.3 Direct contact type storage using artificial ice | p. 263 |
9.2.5.4 Storages using natural ice and snow | p. 264 |
9.2.5.5 Direct contact systems using other PCM | p. 266 |
9.2.5.6 Slurry type storages using artificial ice | p. 266 |
9.2.5.7 Slurry type storages using other PCM than water / ice | p. 269 |
9.2.6 Alternative integration concepts | p. 271 |
9.3 Examples for space heating | p. 273 |
9.3.1 Solar wall | p. 274 |
9.3.2 Daylighting element | p. 277 |
9.3.3 Floor heating systems | p. 280 |
9.3.3.1 Floor heating system with hot water | p. 280 |
9.3.3.2 Floor heating system with electrical heating | p. 281 |
9.3.3.3 Floor heating system using hot air | p. 281 |
9.3.4 Solar air heating and ventilation system | p. 282 |
9.3.5 Storage for heating with hot water | p. 284 |
9.3.5.1 Heat exchanger type approach | p. 284 |
9.3.5.2 Module type approach | p. 286 |
9.3.5.3 Direct contact type approach | p. 288 |
9.3.5.4 Slurry type approach | p. 289 |
9.4 Further information | p. 289 |
9.5 References | p. 291 |
10 Appendix | p. 297 |
11 Index | p. 305 |