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Summary
Summary
This book provides a solid overview of the important metallurgical concepts related to the microstructures of irons and steels, and it provides detailed guidelines for the proper metallographic techniques used to reveal, capture, and understand microstructures. This book provides clearly written explanations of important concepts, and step-by-step instructions for equipment selection and use, microscopy techniques, specimen preparation, and etching. Dozens of concise and helpful 'metallographic tips' are included in the chapters on laboratory practices and specimen preparation. The book features over 500 representative microstructures, with discussions of how the structures can be altered by heat treatment and other means. A handy index to these images is provided, so the book can also be used as an atlas of iron and steel microstructures. Contents include: Introduction to steels and cast irons; Origin of microstructure; Alteration of microstructure; The metallographer and the metallographic laboratory; The metallurgical microscope; The expanded metallographic laboratory; Metallographic specimen preparation; The art of revealing microstructure; Appendices; Index.
Table of Contents
Preface | p. vi |
Acknowledgments | p. vii |
Atlas of Microstructures | p. viii |
Chapter 1 Introduction to Steels and Cast Irons | p. 1 |
Steels | p. 1 |
Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels | p. 2 |
High-Alloy Steels | p. 9 |
Cast Irons | p. 16 |
Chapter 2 Origin of Microstructure | p. 23 |
Microstructural Development Resulting from Heat Treatment | p. 24 |
The Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram | p. 24 |
Kinetics of Phase Transformations | p. 28 |
The Microstructural Constituents in Steel | p. 31 |
Microstructural Development Resulting from Solidification | p. 41 |
Phase Transformations in Cast Irons | p. 42 |
Transformations in a 3% C Cast Iron | p. 43 |
General Description of Microstructures in Cast Irons | p. 44 |
Commercial Cast Irons | p. 46 |
Chapter 3 Alteration of Microstructure | p. 49 |
The Intentional Alteration of Microstructure in Steels and Cast Irons | p. 49 |
The Unintentional Alteration of Microstructure in Steels and Cast Irons | p. 66 |
Chapter 4 The Metallographer and the Metallographic Laboratory | p. 87 |
The Metallographer | p. 87 |
The Metallographer versus the Chemist | p. 89 |
The Metallographer's Workday | p. 92 |
The Metallographic Laboratory | p. 103 |
Safety in the Metallographic Laboratory | p. 106 |
Chapter 5 The Metallurgical Microscope | p. 109 |
The Microscope | p. 109 |
The Objective | p. 112 |
The Nosepiece | p. 116 |
Optical Defects in Objectives | p. 118 |
Types of Objectives | p. 120 |
Types of Eyepieces | p. 123 |
The Illumination System | p. 126 |
The Components of the Illumination System | p. 126 |
Types of Illumination | p. 131 |
Accessories for the Microscope | p. 137 |
The Metallograph | p. 139 |
Special Procedures for the Metallurgical Microscope | p. 140 |
Chapter 6 The Expanded Metallographic Laboratory | p. 149 |
The Image Analyzer | p. 149 |
The Electron Microscope | p. 152 |
The X-Ray Diffractometer | p. 162 |
The Hot Stage Microscope | p. 164 |
The Microhardness Tester | p. 165 |
The Hot Microhardness Tester | p. 166 |
Other Specialized Techniques | p. 167 |
Chapter 7 Metallographic Specimen Preparation | p. 169 |
Information Gathering | p. 169 |
Sectioning | p. 170 |
Mounting | p. 183 |
Grinding | p. 198 |
Polishing | p. 202 |
Specimen Storage | p. 211 |
Chapter 8 The Art of Revealing Microstructure | p. 215 |
Etching Response | p. 215 |
Revealing Microstructure in an As-Polished Specimen | p. 217 |
Revealing Microstructure by Etching | p. 219 |
The Basic Etchants for Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels and Cast Irons | p. 221 |
The Attack Etchants | p. 222 |
Picral | p. 227 |
Variations of Picral | p. 228 |
4% Picral and 2% Nital | p. 233 |
Basic Tint Etchants for Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels and Cast Irons | p. 233 |
General Procedure in Using Tint Etchants | p. 234 |
The Common Tint Etchants | p. 234 |
The Basic Etchants for Stainless Steels | p. 236 |
Attack Etchants for Stainless Steels | p. 237 |
Electrolytic Etchants for Stainless Steels | p. 239 |
The Basic Etchants for Coated Steels | p. 241 |
Special Etching Procedures | p. 241 |
The Use of the Microscope to Enhance Microstructural Features | p. 242 |
Chapter 9 Glossary | p. 245 |
Appendix Tables Helpful to the Metallographer | p. 297 |
List of ASTM standards that pertain to ferrous metallography | p. 297 |
List of vendors for metallographic supplies | p. 298 |
List of light optical microscope manufacturers | p. 298 |
Microscope reticle manufacturer | p. 298 |
Scientific imaging products | p. 299 |
Used and/or reconditioned equipment | p. 299 |
Conversion of average grain intercept length (microns) to ASTM number | p. 300 |
Chemical polishing solutions | p. 300 |
Electroless and electrolytic coatings for edge protection | p. 301 |
Etchants for revealing macrostructures in iron and steel | p. 302 |
Etchants for carbon and alloy steels | p. 303 |
Carbon steel compositions | p. 307 |
Free-machining (resulfurized) carbon steel compositions | p. 307 |
Free-machining (rephosphorized and resulfurized) carbon steel compositions | p. 307 |
High-manganese carbon steel compositions | p. 307 |
High-manganese carbon steel compositions | p. 307 |
Alloy steel compositions applicable to billets, blooms, slabs, and hot-rolled and cold-finished bars | p. 308 |
Chemical compositions for typical low-alloy steels | p. 309 |
ASTM specifications for chromium-molybdenum steel product forms | p. 310 |
Nominal chemical compositions for heat-resistant chromium-molybedenum steels | p. 310 |
Compositions of standard stainless steels | p. 311 |
Compositions of nonstandard stainless steels | p. 312 |
Nominal compositions of wrought iron-base heat-resistant alloys | p. 314 |
Composition limits of principal types of tool steels | p. 315 |
Standard composition ranges for austenitic manganese steel castings | p. 316 |
Typical compositions for malleable iron | p. 316 |
Nominal compositions of commercial maraging steels | p. 316 |
Typical base compositions of SAE J431 automotive gray cast irons for heavy-duty service | p. 316 |
Chemical compositions and mechanical properties of austenitic manganese steels for nonmagnetic and cryogenic applications | p. 317 |
Composition of selected cast irons | p. 317 |
Temperature Conversions | p. 318 |
Index | p. 321 |