Title:
Research methods and statistics : an integrated approach
Personal Author:
Publication Information:
Fort Worth : Harcourt, 2000
ISBN:
9780155071629
Available:*
Library | Item Barcode | Call Number | Material Type | Item Category 1 | Status |
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Searching... | 30000010150669 | Q180.55.M4 F87 2000 | Open Access Book | Book | Searching... |
Searching... | 30000005161066 | Q180.55.M4 F87 2000 | Open Access Book | Book | Searching... |
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Summary
Summary
This book was written in response to the needs for a growing number of schools that are teaching an integrated research methods/statistics course. Basic Research Methods and Statistics has detailed, comprehensive and even-handed coverage of the fundamental issues in research design and data analysis, and is written in a conversational style that students can easily comprehend. The text is comprehensive in its coverage of basic and intermediate topics, however, the modular format allows professors to skip or rearrange the order of chapters without loss of continuity. Therefore, the text is appropriate for either a one-semester or two-semester course.
Table of Contents
Preface | p. v |
Chapter 1 p. 2 | |
An Introductory Overview | p. 3 |
Ways of Knowing | p. 4 |
Intuition and Reasoning Versus Empirical Observation: An Example | p. 7 |
The Scientific Method | p. 10 |
Characteristics of Scientific Observations | p. 11 |
Rival Explanations | p. 14 |
Defining the Terms | p. 14 |
Replication | p. 15 |
Internal and External Validity | p. 15 |
Conducting a Research Study | p. 16 |
Exercises | p. 19 |
Chapter 2 p. 22 | |
Ethics in Research | p. 23 |
Guidelines for Psychologists | p. 24 |
The Basic Ethical Dilemma | p. 25 |
The Six General Ethical Principles | p. 27 |
Specific Ethical Issues in Research with Humans | p. 28 |
Risk or Freedom From Harm | p. 28 |
Informed Consent | p. 29 |
Debriefing | p. 32 |
Privacy | p. 32 |
Ethical Treatment of Animals as Research Subjects | p. 33 |
Special Issues About the Ethics of Research | p. 34 |
Who Decides What Is "Right?" | p. 34 |
Ethics of Funding | p. 34 |
Ethics and Statistics | p. 35 |
What Becomes of What You Find? | p. 36 |
A Final Note for New Researchers | p. 38 |
Exercises | p. 38 |
Chapter 3 p. 40 | |
Variables | p. 41 |
Variables Versus Constants: Definitions and Examples | p. 42 |
How to Identify Variables Versus Constants | p. 44 |
Types of Variables | p. 45 |
Types of Relationships | p. 47 |
No Relationship | p. 47 |
Correlation | p. 47 |
Causality | p. 49 |
Necessary, Sufficient, and Contributory Causes | p. 50 |
Simple Versus Multiple Causation | p. 51 |
Exercises | p. 53 |
Chapter 4 p. 56 | |
Measuring Variables | p. 57 |
Data-Gathering Techniques | p. 58 |
Behavioral Observations | p. 58 |
Self-Reports | p. 58 |
Behavioral Ratings | p. 60 |
Archival Records | p. 60 |
Physical Trace Approach | p. 61 |
Measurement | p. 62 |
Operational Definitions: Measuring Variables | p. 63 |
Operational Definitions: Establishing Research Conditions | p. 64 |
Reliability and Validity | p. 66 |
Reliability | p. 66 |
Validity | p. 69 |
Levels (or Scales) of Measurement | p. 72 |
Sensitivity of Measurements | p. 75 |
Exercises | p. 75 |
Chapter 5 p. 78 | |
Descriptive Statistics | p. 79 |
Populations and Samples | p. 80 |
About the Computations in This Text | p. 80 |
Frequency | p. 81 |
Graphing Frequencies | p. 82 |
Grouped Frequencies | p. 84 |
Probability | p. 86 |
Central Tendency | p. 89 |
Mode | p. 89 |
Median | p. 89 |
Mean | p. 93 |
Means Versus Medians: The Case of Outliers | p. 94 |
Distributions of Scores | p. 95 |
The Normal Distribution | p. 96 |
Skewed Distributions | p. 97 |
Variability | p. 98 |
Variance and Standard Deviation | p. 98 |
Median Absolute Deviation | p. 101 |
Standard Deviations Versus the Median Absolute Deviation: The Case of Outliers | p. 104 |
Range | p. 105 |
Number of Categories/Values | p. 105 |
The Variation Ratio | p. 106 |
Selecting Appropriate Descriptive Statistics | p. 106 |
Simple Data Transformations | p. 106 |
z-Scores | p. 112 |
z-Scores as Inferential Statistics: Areas Under the Normal Curve | p. 114 |
Exercises | p. 120 |
Chapter 6 p. 124 | |
Hypothesis Testing | p. 125 |
Representativeness and Sampling Procedures | p. 127 |
Random Sampling | p. 127 |
Stratified Random Sampling | p. 129 |
Available Samples and Convenience Sampling | p. 129 |
Statistical Hypotheses | p. 130 |
The Null Hypotheses (H[subscript 0]) | p. 130 |
Research or Alternate Hypothesis (H[subscript 1]) | p. 131 |
Sampling Distributions | p. 133 |
The Shape of the Sampling Distribution | p. 136 |
The Average of the Sampling Distribution | p. 138 |
Variability of Sampling Distributions | p. 138 |
Probabilities of Samples | p. 139 |
Making the Decision | p. 140 |
Significance Levels ([alpha]) | p. 142 |
Critical Values | p. 143 |
Tables of Critical Values | p. 144 |
Have We Made the Correct Decision? | p. 145 |
Threats to the Validity of Hypothesis-Testing: Pitfalls to Avoid | p. 149 |
Statistical Versus Practical and Psychological Significance | p. 149 |
The Relevant Error Rate and "Accepting" The Null Hypothesis | p. 150 |
The Arbitrary Cut-off Point Between "Rare" and "Common" Events | p. 151 |
Proposed Alternatives to the Null-Hypothesis-Testing Procedure | p. 152 |
A Call for Compromise: Using a Combination of Approaches | p. 153 |
Exercises | p. 154 |
Chapter 7 p. 156 | |
General Research Methods | p. 157 |
The Experimental Method | p. 158 |
The Logic of Experiments | p. 160 |
An Overview of the Experimental Method | p. 166 |
An Alternative to Random Assignment: Repeated Measures | p. 169 |
Research Settings for Experiments: Laboratory Versus Field Experiments | p. 169 |
Quasi-Experimental Research Methods | p. 171 |
Non-Equivalent Groups Designs | p. 171 |
Time-Series Designs | p. 173 |
Two Approaches to Analyzing the Results | p. 174 |
Summary of Quasi-Experimental Methods | p. 175 |
Correlational Methods | p. 175 |
Naturalistic Observation | p. 178 |
Summary of the Correlational Method | p. 180 |
Exercises | p. 181 |
Chapter 8 p. 184 | |
Correlation Coefficients | p. 185 |
Magnitude | p. 186 |
Direction | p. 188 |
Graphing the Relationship Between Two Variables | p. 189 |
Selecting the Appropriate Correlation Coefficient | p. 191 |
Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient | p. 193 |
The Pearson r as an Inferential Statistic: Testing the Null Hypothesis | p. 196 |
Spearman Rank-Order Correlation Coefficient | p. 197 |
The Spearman r as an Inferential Statistic: Testing the Null Hypothesis | p. 199 |
Tied Ranking Procedure | p. 200 |
Correlating Nominal Data | p. 202 |
Phi Coefficient | p. 203 |
Testing the Difference Between Two Correlations | p. 206 |
Exercises | p. 208 |
Chapter 9 p. 212 | |
Introduction to Regression Analysis | p. 213 |
The Logic Behind Simple Regression Analysis | p. 214 |
The Regression Equation | p. 217 |
About the Regression Equation | p. 219 |
Assumptions and Limitations of the Least-Squares Method of Regression | p. 221 |
Linearity | p. 222 |
Normal Distributions and Homoscedasticity | p. 224 |
Evaluating Y': How Accurate Are Our Predictions? | p. 227 |
A Short-Cut for Computing the Standard Error of the Estimate | p. 235 |
z-Scores and Regression Analysis | p. 236 |
Coefficient of Determination | p. 238 |
Using Venn Diagrams to Illustrate r[superscript 2] | p. 241 |
The Basic Concepts of Multiple Regression | p. 242 |
Using Venn Diagrams to Illustrate Multiple Regression and R[superscript 2] | p. 243 |
Multicollinearity | p. 246 |
Exercises | p. 248 |
Chapter 10 p. 252 | |
Designing Experiments and Quasi-Experiments | p. 253 |
One-way Designs | p. 255 |
Factorial Designs and the Concept of Interaction: "It Depends" | p. 256 |
Multiple Determinants (or Predictors) of Behavior | p. 257 |
Contingencies Among Determinants: The Essence of Interaction | p. 258 |
Terminology and Notation Systems for Factorial Designs | p. 261 |
Factorial Designs and Confounds | p. 263 |
The Research Questions Addressed in Factorial Designs | p. 264 |
Selecting Only the Necessary Independent Variables | p. 267 |
Selecting the Necessary Levels of the Independent Variables | p. 268 |
No-Treatment Control Group | p. 271 |
Placebo Control Groups | p. 272 |
Research Designs | p. 273 |
Comparisons Between Groups Versus Repeated Measures | p. 273 |
Testing Participants Repeatedly in Within-Subjects Designs | p. 273 |
Advantages of Within-Subjects Designs | p. 275 |
Disadvantages of Within-Subjects Designs | p. 277 |
Counterbalancing | p. 279 |
Summary of Within-Subjects Designs | p. 285 |
Advantages and Disadvantages of Between-Subjects Designs | p. 285 |
Matching Designs | p. 286 |
Some General Confounds: Threats to Internal Validity | p. 287 |
Maturation | p. 287 |
History | p. 288 |
Regression Toward the Mean | p. 288 |
Instrumentation | p. 289 |
Mortality | p. 290 |
Sensitization | p. 290 |
Pretest-Posttest Designs: The Need for a Control Group | p. 291 |
Selecting Within-Subjects Factors for Mixed Designs | p. 294 |
The Special Case of Age as an Independent Variable | p. 297 |
Steps in Designing an Experiment or Quasi-Experiment | p. 298 |
Exercises | p. 300 |
Chapter 11 p. 306 | |
The z-Test and t-Test: Analyzing Data from One-and Two-Group Designs | p. 307 |
The z-Test: When the Population Standard Deviation ([sigma]) Is Known | p. 308 |
z-Test: Application 1: When the Population Mean ([mu]) Is Known | p. 308 |
z-Test Application 2: When the Population Mean ([mu]) Is Being Tested | p. 317 |
Requirements for the z-Test | p. 318 |
The t-Test: When the Population Standard Deviation ([sigma]) Is Unknown | p. 320 |
One-Sample t-Test | p. 322 |
Two-Sample t-Test: Independent Samples From a Between-Subjects Design | p. 326 |
Two-Sample t-Test: Related Samples From a Within-Subjects or Matching Design | p. 333 |
The Limited Applicability of z- and t-Tests | p. 338 |
Exercises | p. 339 |
Chapter 12 p. 342 | |
Analysis of Variance | p. 343 |
Sources of Variation | p. 345 |
Between-Subjects Designs | p. 345 |
Within-Subjects Designs | p. 346 |
Factorial Designs | p. 347 |
Mixed Designs | p. 347 |
Computing Sums of Squares | p. 349 |
One-way BS-ANOVA | p. 349 |
Two-way BS-ANOVA | p. 353 |
One-way RM-ANOVA | p. 356 |
Degrees of Freedom | p. 359 |
Mean Squares | p. 364 |
The F-Ratio | p. 365 |
Testing the Significance of F | p. 366 |
Post Hoc Analyses | p. 367 |
Dunn's Multiple Comparisons Procedure | p. 368 |
Appendix 12-A Example of a One-way BS-ANOVA | p. 373 |
Appendix 12-B Example of a 2 [times] 3 (Two-way) BS-ANOVA | p. 379 |
Appendix 12-C Example of a One-way RM-ANOVA | p. 391 |
Exercises | p. 399 |
Chapter 13 p. 406 | |
Nonparametric Tests for Experiments and Quasi-Experiments | p. 407 |
Nominal Scales | p. 410 |
Between-Subjects Designs: Chi-Square (X[superscript 2]) | p. 410 |
Within-Subjects Designs: Cochran's Q | p. 416 |
Ordinal Scales | p. 422 |
Between-Subjects Designs: The Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test and the Kruskal-Wallis H | p. 422 |
Within-Subjects Designs: Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test (a.k.a. the Wilcoxon W) | p. 428 |
A Cautionary Note about When to Select the Appropriate Statistic | p. 431 |
Exercises | p. 432 |
Chapter 14 p. 438 | |
Estimation and Confidence Intervals | p. 439 |
Confidence Intervals for the Mean | p. 441 |
Finding the Margin of Error: The Maximum Error of the Estimate | p. 441 |
Confidence Interval: The Range of Likely Values of the Population Mean | p. 445 |
Summary: Steps in Computing the Confidence Interval for the Mean | p. 447 |
Confidence Intervals for Proportions (or Percentages) | p. 447 |
Numerical Examples of Confidence Intervals for Proportions (or Percentages) | p. 448 |
Limitations of Confidence Intervals for Proportions (or Percentages) | p. 450 |
Confidence Intervals for Pearson Correlations | p. 451 |
Numerical Example of Confidence Intervals for the Pearson Correlation | p. 453 |
Minimum Differences Between Treatment Means | p. 455 |
Minimum Differences in Two-Group Between-Subjects Designs | p. 456 |
Minimum Differences in Two-Treatment Related-Samples Designs | p. 460 |
Confidence Intervals Versus Significance Testing | p. 464 |
Numerical Example of Confidence Intervals That Do Not Overlap | p. 466 |
Numerical Example of Confidence Intervals That Overlap | p. 467 |
Confidence Intervals and Statistical Power | p. 471 |
Renewing the Call for Compromise: Combining the Approaches | p. 475 |
Exercises | p. 475 |
Chapter 15 p. 478 | |
Single-Subject Research Design | p. 479 |
Key Elements of Single-Subject Research | p. 480 |
Elements of Measurement | p. 481 |
Design Phases in Single-Subject Research Designs | p. 486 |
Presentation of Data | p. 486 |
Threats to the Validity of Data from Single-Subject Designs | p. 488 |
Specific Research Designs | p. 490 |
ABAB Designs | p. 490 |
Multiple-Baseline Designs | p. 493 |
The Changing Criterion Design | p. 498 |
Alternating Treatment Designs | p. 501 |
Mixed Designs | p. 504 |
Single-Subject Designs for Applied and Basic Research Questions | p. 506 |
Evaluation of Data from Single-Subject Designs | p. 507 |
Visual Inspection | p. 508 |
Interpreting the Data from Single-Subject Research | p. 514 |
Potential Confounds and Problems in the Visual Interpretation of Data | p. 516 |
Resources for Further Study | p. 518 |
Exercises | p. 519 |
Chapter 16 p. 524 | |
Qualitative Research Methods and Analysis | p. 525 |
Qualitative Methods for Gathering Data | p. 526 |
Observation | p. 527 |
Interviews | p. 532 |
Textual Analysis | p. 539 |
Transcription | p. 540 |
Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research | p. 542 |
Triangulation of Methods: Increasing the Validity | p. 543 |
A Case Study Illustrating Triangulation of Qualitative Research Methods | p. 544 |
Statistics for Qualitative Methods | p. 546 |
The Future of Qualitative Methods | p. 548 |
Suggestions for Further Reading | p. 548 |
Exercises | p. 549 |
Appendix A | p. 0 |
Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct | p. 1 |
Introduction | p. 3 |
Preamble | p. 5 |
General Principles | p. 5 |
Principle A Competence | p. 5 |
Principle B Integrity | p. 6 |
Principle C Professional and Scientific Responsibility | p. 6 |
Principle D Respect for People's Rights and Dignity | p. 6 |
Principle E Concern for Others' Welfare | p. 6 |
Principle F Social Responsibility | p. 7 |
Ethical Standards | p. 7 |
1. General Standards | p. 7 |
2. Evaluation, Assessment, or Intervention | p. 13 |
3. Advertising and Other Public Statements | p. 15 |
4. Therapy | p. 16 |
5. Privacy and Confidentiality | p. 19 |
6. Teaching, Training Supervision, Research, and Publishing | p. 21 |
7. Forensic Activities | p. 26 |
8. Resolving Ethical Issues | p. 28 |
Appendix B | p. 0 |
Statistical Tables | p. 1 |
Appendix C | p. 0 |
Introduction to Statistical Power | p. 1 |
Two Variances | p. 1 |
Using the Two Variances to Test the Null Hypothesis | p. 3 |
Statistical Power | p. 5 |
Maximizing the Power in a Study | p. 7 |
Adequate Sample Size | p. 7 |
Lower Significance ([alpha]) Levels | p. 9 |
Selecting Designs with More Inherent Power | p. 9 |
Power Analysis | p. 14 |
Exercises | p. 20 |
Appendix D | p. 0 |
Reporting the Research | p. 1 |
Methods of Dissemination | p. 1 |
Presentations at Professional Meetings | p. 1 |
Written Reports | p. 4 |
Electronic Dissemination | p. 5 |
General Writing Style | p. 6 |
Some Specific Issues and Common Errors | p. 8 |
Re-writing | p. 9 |
Plagiarism | p. 10 |
APA Format and Manuscript Preparation | p. 11 |
Sections of an APA-Format Research Report | p. 12 |
Examples of References Using the APA Format | p. 19 |
Manuscript Headings | p. 23 |
Sample Manuscripts | p. 24 |
Appendix E | p. 0 |
Answers for the Odd-Numbered Exercises | p. 1 |
Appendix F | p. 0 |
References | p. 1 |
Glossary | p. 1 |
Index | p. 1 |