Microwave and millimeter-wave remote sensing for security applications

Microwave and millimeter-wave remote sensing techniques are fast becoming a necessity in many aspects of security as detection and classification of objects or intruders becomes more difficult. This groundbreaking resource offers you expert guidance in this burgeoning area. It provides you with a thorough treatment of the principles of microwave and millimeter-wave remote sensing for security applications, as well as practical coverage of the design of radiometer, radar, and imaging systems. You learn how to design active and passive sensors for intruder detection, concealed object detection, and human activity classification. This detailed book presents the fundamental concepts practitioners need to understand, including electromagnetic wave propagation in free space and in media, antenna theory, and the principles of receiver design. You find in-depth discussions on the interactions of electromagnetic waves with human tissues, the atmosphere and various building and clothing materials. This timely volume explores recently developed detection techniques, such as micro-Doppler radar signatures and correlation radiometry. the book is supported with over 200 illustrations and 1,135 equations.

Author Notes

Jeffrey Nanzer is a senior professional staff member at The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory. He holds an M.S. and a Ph.D. in electrical engineering, both from the University of Texas at Austin.

Preface	p. xi
Chapter 1 Introduction	p. 1
1.1 Security Sensing	p. 1
1.1.1 Needs for Remote Security Sensing	p. 1
1.1.2 Advantages of Microwave and Millimeter-Wave Remote Sensors	p. 2
1.2 Overview of Remote Sensing Techniques	p. 3
1.2.1 Radiometry	p. 3
1.2.2 Radar Systems	p. 4
1.2.3 Imaging Systems	p. 4
1.2.4 Interferometric Angular Velocity Measurement	p. 5
1.2.5 Microwave and Millimeter-Wave Remote Sensing in Related Fields	p. 5
1.3 The Microwave and Millimeter-Wave Spectrum	p. 7
1.3.1 Frequency Designations	p. 7
1.3.2 Propagation of Microwave and Millimeter-Wave Radiation	p. 8
1.4 Examples of Remote Security Sensors	p. 9
1.4.1 Active Imaging for Contraband Detection	p. 10
1.4.2 Passive Imaging for Contraband Detection	p. 10
1.4.3 Detection of Human Presence	p. 12
1.4.4 Discrimination of Humans and Classification of Human Activity	p. 18
1.4.5 Through-Wall Detection	p. 19
1.4.6 Biological Signature Detection	p. 20
References	p. 20
Chapter 2 Electromagnetic Plane Wave Fundamentals	p. 27
2.1 Maxwell's Equations	p. 27
2.1.1 The Constitutive Parameters	p. 30
2.2 Time-Harmonic Electromagnetic Fields	p. 31
2.2.1 The Wave Equation	p. 32
2.2.2 Plane Waves	p. 33
2.2.2.1 Phase Velocity	p. 34
2.2.2.2 Relationship Between E and H	p. 35
2.2.3 Energy and Power	p. 37
2.3 Wave Polarization	p. 38
2.3.1 Linear Polarization	p. 39
2.3.2 Elliptical Polarization	p. 40
References	p. 42
Chapter 3 Electromagnetic Waves in Media	p. 43
3.1 Plane Wave Propagation in Unbounded Media	p. 44
3.1.1 Good Conducting Media	p. 46
3.1.2 Good Dielectric Media	p. 47
3.1.3 Wave Impedance in Media	p. 48
3.1.4 Complex Permittivity and Dispersion	p. 48
3.2 Plane Wave Propagation in Bounded Media	p. 51
3.2.1 Reflection and Transmission of Normally Incident Waves	p. 52
3.2.2 Reflection and Transmission of Arbitrarily Incident Waves	p. 54
3.2.2.1 Transverse Electric (Perpendicular) Incidence	p. 54
3.2.2.2 Transverse Magnetic (Parallel) Incidence	p. 57
3.2.3 Power Reflection and Transmission	p. 58
3.2.4 Total Transmission and Total Reflection	p. 60
3.2.5 Layered Media	p. 61
3.3 Electromagnetic Propagation in Specific Media	p. 63
3.3.1 Atmospheric Propagation Effects	p. 63
3.3.2 Propagation Through Building Materials	p. 69
3.3.3 Propagation Through Clothing and Garment Materials	p. 70
3.3.4 Dielectric Properties of Explosives, Plastics, and Metals	p. 71
3.3.5 Dielectric Properties of Human Tissue	p. 72
References	p. 81
Chapter 4 Antennas	p. 85
4.1 Electromagnetic Potentials	p. 86
4.1.1 Electromagnetic Potentials Due to Electric Current Density J	p. 86
4.1.2 Electromagnetic Potentials Due to Magnetic Current Density J m	p. 88
4.1.3 Infinitesimal Dipole Radiation	p. 89
4.1.4 Far Field Radiation	p. 90
4.1.5 Infinitesimal Dipole Far-Field Radiation	p. 94
4.2 Antenna Parameters	p. 95
4.2.1 Radiated Power Density and Total Radiated Power	p. 95
4.2.2 Antenna Pattern	p. 96
4.2.3 Antenna Pattern Beamwidth	p. 97
4.2.4 Antenna Solid Angles	p. 99
4.2.5 Directivity	p. 99
4.2.6 Gain	p. 101
4.2.7 Aperture Area and Pattern Solid Angle	p. 102
4.2.8 Antenna Temperature and Noise Power	p. 103
4.2.9 Polarization	p. 103
4.3 Properties of Wire Antennas	p. 104
4.3.1 Infinitesimal Dipole	p. 104
4.3.2 Long Dipole	p. 105
4.4 Aperture Antennas	p. 107
4.4.1 Image theory	p. 108
4.4.2 The Equivalence Principle	p. 109
4.4.3 Radiation from a Rectangular Aperture	p. 111
4.4.4 Radiation from a Circular Aperture	p. 115
4.5 Antenna Arrays	p. 117
4.5.1 Linear Array Theory	p. 118
4.5.2 Planar Arrays	p. 121
4.5.3 Array Beamwidth	p. 122
4.5.4 Phased Arrays	p. 123
4.5.5 Array Architectures	p. 125
4.5.5.1 Signal Feeds	p. 125
4.5.5.2 Beam Steering	p. 127
4.6 Common Microwave and Millimeter-Wave Antennas	p. 128
4.6.1 Horn Antennas	p. 128
4.6.2 Slot Antennas	p. 131
4.6.3 Microstrip Antennas	p. 132
4.6.4 Reflector Antenna Systems	p. 134
4.6.5 Lens Antenna Systems	p. 136
References	p. 137
Chapter 5 Receivers	p. 139
5.1 General Operation of Receivers	p. 140
5.2 Receiver Noise	p. 143
5.2.1 Sources of Receiver Noise	p. 144
5.2.1.1 Thermal Noise	p. 144
5.2.1.2 Shot Noise	p. 145
5.2.1.3 Flicker Noise	p. 146
5.2.2 Equivalent Noise Bandwidth	p. 146
5.2.3 Thermal Noise at Millimeter-Wave Frequencies	p. 148
5.3 Noise Figure and Noise Temperature	p. 150
5.3.1 Noise Figure	p. 150
5.3.2 Noise Temperature	p. 152
5.3.3 Noise Figure of an Attenuator	p. 153
5.3.4 Noise in Cascaded Systems	p. 154
5.3.5 ADC Noise	p. 157
5.4 Receiver Linearity	p. 160
5.4.1 Gain Compression	p. 162
5.4.2 Intermodulation Products	p. 164
5.4.3 Third Order Intercept Point	p. 166
5.4.4 Intercept Point of a Cascade	p. 168
5.4.5 Dynamic Range	p. 168
5.4.6 Spurious Free Dynamic Range	p. 170
References	p. 171
Chapter 6 Radiometry	p. 173
6.1 Radiometry Fundamentals	p. 174
6.1.1 Brightness	p. 174
6.1.2 Brightness and Distance	p. 176
6.1.3 Flux Density and Source Distribution	p. 178
6.1.4 Effect of the Antenna	p. 179
6.2 Blackbody Radiation	p. 180
6.2.1 Planck's Blackbody Radiation Law	p. 180
6.2.2 Approximations of Planck's Law	p. 184
6.2.3 Band-Limited Integration of Planck's Law	p. 185
6.3 Applied Radiometry	p. 187
6.3.1 Source Resolution	p. 188
6.3.1.1 Resolved Source	p. 188
6.3.1.2 Unresolved Source	p. 189
6.3.2 Received Power as a Convolution	p. 190
6.3.3 Emissivity and Radiometric Temperature	p. 191
6.3.3.1 Emissivities of Human Skin and Common Materials	p. 192
6.3.3.2 Radiometric Temperature in an Environment	p. 194
6.4 Radiometer Receivers	p. 196
6.4.1 Sensitivity	p. 197
6.4.2 Total Power Radiometer	p. 200
6.4.2.1 Total Power Response	p. 200
6.4.2.2 Sensitivity	p. 201
6.4.3 Interferometric Correlation Radiometer	p. 206
6.4.3.1 Spatial Point Source Response	p. 207
6.4.3.2 Sensitivity	p. 212
6.5 Practical Considerations	p. 215
6.5.1 Receiver Instabilities	p. 215
6.5.2 Dicke Radiometer	p. 215
6.5.3 Radiometer Calibration	p. 217
6.6 Scanning Radiometer Systems	p. 218
6.6.1 Spatial Resolution	p. 219
6.6.2 Dwell Time	p. 222
6.6.3 Measurement Uncertainty	p. 223
6.6.3.1 One-Dimensional Scanning	p. 223
6.6.3.2 Two-Dimensional Scanning	p. 225
References	p. 226
Chapter 7 Radar	p. 229
7.1 Radar Fundamentals	p. 230
7.1.1 Configurations and Measurements	p. 231
7.1.2 Range Equation	p. 233
7.2 Transmitter Systems	p. 236
7.2.1 Transmitter Functionality	p. 236
7.2.2 Transmitter Noise	p. 239
7.2.3 Millimeter-Wave Oscillators	p. 241
7.3 Radar Measurement Sensitivity	p. 243
7.3.1 Measurement Error	p. 243
7.3.1.1 Range Measurement Error	p. 244
7.3.1.2 Frequency Measurement Error	p. 245
7.3.1.3 Angle Measurement Error	p. 245
7.3.1.4 Example	p. 245
7.3.2 Impact of the Time-Bandwidth Product on Measurement Error	p. 251
7.4 Micro-Doppler	p. 253
7.4.1 Micro-Doppler in Security Radar	p. 254
7.4.2 Micro-Doppler Theory	p. 255
7.4.3 Human Micro-Doppler Signature	p. 260
7.5 Continuous-Wave Radar	p. 266
7.5.1 Continuous-Wave Doppler	p. 267
7.5.2 Frequency-Modulated CW	p. 271
7.5.3 Multifrequency CW	p. 274
7.5.4 Moving Target Indication Radar	p. 275
7.6 High-Range Resolution Radar	p. 279
7.6.1 Pulse Radar	p. 280
7.6.2 Linear Frequency Modulation	p. 282
7.6.3 Stepped-Frequency Modulation	p. 285
References	p. 286
Chapter 8 Imaging Systems	p. 289
8.1 Scanning Imaging Systems	p. 291
8.1.1 Types of Scanning Imagers	p. 291
8.1.2 General Characteristics of Scanning Systems	p. 292
8.1.2.1 Field of View and Spatial Resolution	p. 292
8.1.2.2 Frame Rate	p. 294
8.2 Interferometric Imaging Systems	p. 295
8.2.1 Introduction	p. 295
8.2.2 Image Formation	p. 296
8.2.2.1 Visibility Function	p. 297
8.2.2.2 Fourier Transform Relationship of Visibility and Radiometric Temperature	p. 299
8.2.2.3 The Correlation Interferometer as a Spatial Filter	p. 301
8.2.3 Visibility Sampling	p. 303
8.2.4 Two-Dimensional Visibility	p. 308
8.2.5 Image Sensitivity	p. 309
8.2.6 Image Resolution and Field of View	p. 312
8.2.7 Interferometric Imaging Arrays	p. 318
8.2.7.1 Mills Cross Array	p. 319
8.2.7.2 T-Array	p. 321
8.2.7.3 Y-Array	p. 322
8.2.7.4 Circular Arrays	p. 323
References	p. 325
Chapter 9 Interferometric Measurement of Angular Velocity	p. 329
9.1 Interferometer Response to an Angularly Moving Point Source	p. 330
9.1.1 System Beam Pattern	p. 331
9.1.2 Frequency Shift Induced by an Angularly Moving Object	p. 332
9.1.3 Comparison to Doppler Frequency Shift	p. 333
9.1.4 Frequency Uncertainty at Wide Angles	p. 335
9.1.5 Small Angle Approximation	p. 335
9.2 Interferometer Spectral Response	p. 336
9.2.1 General Spectral Response	p. 336
9.2.2 Response with a Sinc Function System Beam Pattern	p. 337
9.2.3 Interferometer Response in the Time-Frequency Domain	p. 341
9.3 Interferometric Measurement of Moving Humans	p. 344
9.3.1 Narrow-Beamwidth Response to a Moving Human	p. 344
9.3.2 Wide-Beamwidth Response to a Moving Human	p. 346
References	p. 349
List of Symbols	p. 351
List of Abbreviations and Acronyms	p. 355
About the Author	p. 357
Index	p. 359

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