CDMA radio with repeaters

Cellular Communications is about Service, Technology and Economy. Public awareness and safety is considered the fourth dimension in the equation, that rolls back to impact all of the other three. Mobile communications has become an indispensable element of modem lifestyle. The 3G cellular systems focus on high data-rate multimedia services and a host of respective applications, mostly leisure-time oriented. At the other extreme, mobile communications is a most effective driving force in boosting the economy of developing communities. These two processes may share technology momentum and the economy of scale, but their substantial differences have to be recognized, at the time when the momentum of cellular deployment moves in that direction. The introduction of mobile wireless services to developing communities is challenged by the cost of infrastructure, operations and user terminals of the advanced networks, and the mixture of older generation systems to coexist with the new deployments. Affordability considerations and priority of services inspire innovative architectural and optimization solutions to the infrastructure, choice of applications and user terminals.

Preface	p. xv
Abbreviations	p. xix
1 Introduction and Preview	p. 1
1.1 Evolution of Distributed Radio Access in the Cellular Communications	p. 1
1.1.1 The Cellular Communications Concept	p. 1
1.1.2 The Coverage Challenge	p. 3
1.1.3 The Cost of the Service	p. 4
1.1.4 The Evolution of Repeaters in the Cellular Service	p. 5
1.2 Classification of Repeaters	p. 6
1.2.1 Distributed Wireless Communications	p. 6
1.2.2 Repeaters in the Cellular Communications	p. 7
1.2.3 Repeaters in Multiple Access Systems	p. 9
1.2.4 Repeater Classification by their Backhaul Conduit	p. 11
1.2.5 Repeater Classification by Application	p. 14
1.3 Repeaters in the CDMA Cellular Network	p. 14
1.3.1 Repeater Interaction with the Network, and Tuning	p. 14
1.3.2 Impact of Repeaters on the CDMA Network	p. 15
1.4 Cost Considerations	p. 17
1.5 Theme of the Book	p. 18
1.5.1 The Complexity of the Multiple Access Mobile Communications Channel	p. 18
1.5.2 Propagation Modeling	p. 18
1.5.3 System Modeling	p. 20
1.5.4 Theme of the Book	p. 20
1.6 Organization of the Book	p. 20
2 CDMA Air Interface Overview	p. 23
2.1 Cellular Wireless Communications	p. 23
2.2 CDMA IS 95 Air Interface Overview	p. 25
2.2.1 System Concept	p. 25
2.2.2 Logical and Physical Channels	p. 28
2.2.3 Power Control	p. 30
2.2.4 Soft Handoff	p. 32
2.3 Third Generation - 3G	p. 34
2.3.1 The Motivation	p. 34
2.3.2 The Standardization	p. 34
2.3.3 The Features and Techniques	p. 35
2.4 CDMA2000	p. 36
2.4.1 Introduction	p. 36
2.4.2 Forward Link	p. 36
2.4.3 Reverse Link	p. 37
2.5 WCDMA UMTS	p. 38
2.6 CDMA Timeline	p. 38
2.7 Forward Link Time Multiplexing	p. 39
2.8 1xEV-DO	p. 40
2.9 1xEV-DV	p. 41
2.10 HSDPA	p. 42
3 The Mobile Radio Propagation Channel	p. 45
3.1 Overview of the Mobile Wireless Channel	p. 45
3.1.1 Introduction	p. 45
3.1.2 Channel Characteristics	p. 45
3.1.3 Path-Loss and Channel Fluctuations	p. 46
3.2 Path-Gain Physics	p. 47
3.2.1 The Transmission Equation	p. 47
3.2.2 Wave Reflection from a Perfectly Conducting Plane	p. 48
3.2.3 Reflection at the Interface between Dielectric Media	p. 50
3.2.4 The Two-Ray, Flat Earth Propagation Model	p. 53
3.2.5 Lateral Waves at the Interface - Forest Propagation	p. 55
3.2.6 Diffraction	p. 57
3.3 Path-Gain Prediction Models	p. 62
3.3.1 The Role of Measurement and of Modeling in Channel Characterization and Prediction	p. 62
3.3.2 Physically Based Prediction Models	p. 63
3.3.3 Building Penetration and Indoors Propagation	p. 65
3.3.4 Heuristic Models	p. 67
3.4 Multipath and Fading	p. 67
3.4.1 Impulse Response	p. 67
3.4.2 Coherent Time and Coherent Bandwidth	p. 69
3.4.3 Fading Statistics	p. 71
3.5 Polarization Effects	p. 73
3.5.1 Polarization of Electromagnetic Waves	p. 73
3.5.2 The Depolarization of Electromagnetic Waves	p. 74
3.6 Antennas and Coverage	p. 75
3.6.1 Introduction	p. 75
3.6.2 Antenna Parameters	p. 76
3.6.3 Gain of an Aperture Antenna and the Sidelobe "Skirt"	p. 78
3.6.4 Wave Field Regions	p. 79
3.6.5 Dipole Antenna	p. 80
3.6.6 Colinear Arrays	p. 80
3.6.7 Coverage Shaping	p. 81
3.6.8 Antenna Diversity	p. 86
3.6.9 Antenna Noise Temperature	p. 92
3.6.10 Coupling between On-Site Antennas	p. 94
4 Radio Access Related Performance of CDMA Cellular Networks	p. 101
4.1 CDMA Forward and Reverse Links	p. 101
4.2 Reverse Link Coverage-Capacity Assessment	p. 102
4.2.1 The Reverse Link Equation	p. 103
4.2.2 Capacity Limit and Noise Rise	p. 105
4.2.3 Impact of Tower-Top LNA (TTLNA) and of Diversity	p. 106
4.2.4 Cells with Different Size and Load	p. 106
4.3 Soft Handoff and the Definition of the Cell Boundary	p. 107
4.3.1 The Reverse Link Cell Boundary	p. 108
4.3.2 Cell Coverage and "Cell Breathing"	p. 108
4.3.3 Cell Jamming	p. 111
4.3.4 The Forward Link Cell Boundary	p. 113
4.4 Forward Link Assessment	p. 113
4.4.1 Derivation of the Forward Link Equation	p. 113
4.4.2 The Orthogonality Function	p. 115
4.4.3 Orthogonality and Diversity Gain	p. 117
4.4.4 Orthogonality and Forward Link Power Control	p. 120
4.4.5 Forward Link Capacity	p. 120
4.4.6 User Distribution	p. 123
4.4.7 Capacity Limit of the Forward Link	p. 124
4.4.8 Coverage and Capacity - Call Blocking and Dropped Calls	p. 124
4.4.9 Capacity Measurement	p. 125
4.5 Link Balancing	p. 125
4.5.1 Coverage Balance	p. 126
4.5.2 Capacity Balance	p. 126
4.5.3 Balancing the Links by Controlling the Pilot Power	p. 126
4.5.4 Link Balancing by Beam Control	p. 130
4.6 Load Balancing	p. 130
4.7 Soft Handoff Search Window	p. 131
4.8 Heterogeneous Cell Clustering	p. 131
4.8.1 Cell Shaping	p. 131
4.8.2 Microcells	p. 134
4.8.3 Omni Cells	p. 138
4.9 Network Optimization	p. 142
4.9.1 Objectives	p. 142
4.9.2 The Dimensions of Optimization	p. 142
4.9.3 Scope and Dynamics of Optimization	p. 144
5 Diversity in Transmission and Reception	p. 149
5.1 Overview of Diversity in Communications	p. 149
5.1.1 Introduction	p. 149
5.1.2 Diversity Dimensions	p. 153
5.1.3 Macro- and Micro-Diversity	p. 157
5.2 Diversity Combining	p. 158
5.2.1 Selection Diversity Processing	p. 159
5.2.2 Equal-Gain Combining Diversity Processing	p. 161
5.2.3 Maximal Ratio Combining Diversity Processing	p. 162
5.3 RF Diversity Methods in CDMA Cellular Systems	p. 166
5.3.1 Space Diversity	p. 166
5.3.2 Polarization Diversity	p. 167
5.3.3 Angle Diversity	p. 169
5.4 Transmit Diversity	p. 169
5.4.1 Time-Delay Transmit Diversity (TDTD)	p. 170
5.4.2 Phase-Sweep Transmit Diversity (PSTD)	p. 173
5.5 Relaying and Cascading Diversity in Remote RANs	p. 174
5.5.1 Direct Diversity Relaying	p. 174
5.5.2 Remote Transmit Diversity	p. 176
5.5.3 PseudoDiversity Combining (PDC) - Relaying RL Diversity	p. 177
5.5.4 Diversity Reception of Relayed Diversity Branches	p. 178
5.6 The Impact of Diversity on the CDMA Cellular Network	p. 178
5.6.1 Diversity in the Reverse Link	p. 179
5.6.2 Transmit Diversity in the Forward Link	p. 180
5.6.3 Time-Delay Transmit Diversity	p. 180
5.6.4 Phase-Sweeping Transmit Diversity (PSTD)	p. 185
5.6.5 Comparative Evaluation	p. 187
5.6.6 Impact of Diversity on Network Probes and Status Measurement	p. 187
6 Repeaters Embedded in the CDMA Radio Access Network	p. 193
6.1 Modeling of the Repeater in the CDMA Network	p. 193
6.2 Classification of Repeaters by their Interaction with the Donor Cell	p. 196
6.2.1 Embedded Repeaters	p. 196
6.2.2 Range Extension Repeaters	p. 196
6.2.3 Cell boundary Repeaters	p. 197
6.2.4 Remote Repeaters	p. 197
6.3 Interaction of the Repeater with the CDMA Network	p. 198
6.3.1 Repeater Modeling - Reverse Link	p. 198
6.3.2 Repeater Impact on Coverage and Capacity - Reverse Link	p. 200
6.3.3 Forward Link Analysis	p. 204
6.3.4 Repeater Links Balancing	p. 207
6.4 Optimization of the Reverse Link	p. 211
6.4.1 Derivation of the Optimization Equation	p. 211
6.4.2 User-Density-Limited Cells	p. 212
6.4.3 Capacity-Limited Cells	p. 215
6.5 Repeater Coverage Overlap with the Donor Cell	p. 217
6.5.1 Coverage Overlap Analysis	p. 217
6.5.2 Coverage Overlap Control	p. 218
6.6 Multiple Repeaters	p. 219
6.6.1 "Star" Architecture - Parallel Repeaters	p. 219
6.6.2 Multi-hop Repeater Architecture	p. 222
6.6.3 Comparison of Star and Cascade Repeater Linking	p. 229
6.6.4 RF Distribution Network and the Distributed Antenna	p. 231
6.7 Search Windows	p. 232
7 Repeaters Design and Tuning in CDMA Networks	p. 235
7.1 RF Repeaters	p. 235
7.1.1 The Role of RF Repeaters	p. 235
7.1.2 Network Diagram and Signal Flow	p. 235
7.1.3 Repeater Generic Diagram	p. 236
7.1.4 BTS Interface	p. 237
7.1.5 Critical Signal Paths and Parasitic Coupling	p. 239
7.1.6 Signal Distortions	p. 240
7.2 Repeater Architecture	p. 241
7.2.1 Governing Parameters and Design Principles	p. 241
7.2.2 Distributed and Unified Repeater Architectures	p. 249
7.2.3 Band-Filtered and Channel-Filtered Repeaters	p. 251
7.2.4 Signal and Interference Budget	p. 252
7.2.5 Gain and Filtering Chain	p. 254
7.2.6 Level and Gain Control	p. 257
7.2.7 Antennas in Repeater Systems	p. 260
7.3 Repeater Design	p. 261
7.3.1 Basic Design Rules	p. 261
7.3.2 RF F1/F1 Repeater	p. 274
7.3.3 Optical Fiber Repeater	p. 278
7.3.4 Free-Space Optic Repeater	p. 283
7.3.5 In-Band F1/F2 Repeater	p. 285
7.3.6 Out-of-Band F1/F2 Repeater	p. 291
7.3.7 MW F1/F2 Repeater	p. 292
7.3.8 Repeater Tuning	p. 294
7.4 Regulation and Type Approval	p. 296
7.4.1 Regulatory Constraints	p. 296
7.4.2 Type Approval	p. 297
7.4.3 Type Classification	p. 297
7.4.4 Test Parameters	p. 297
7.4.5 Test Subtleties	p. 298
7.4.6 Emission Requirements	p. 299
8 Backhaul for RF Distributed Radio Access Nodes	p. 303
8.1 Analog and Digital Backhauls	p. 303
8.1.1 Analog Backhaul	p. 303
8.1.2 Digital Backhaul	p. 304
8.2 Classification of Backhauls	p. 304
8.2.1 Coax	p. 304
8.2.2 Optical Fiber (OF)	p. 304
8.2.3 Free-Space Optics (FSO)	p. 305
8.2.4 In-Band FSR	p. 305
8.2.5 Out-of-Band FSR	p. 305
8.2.6 MW FSR	p. 305
8.3 Repeater Backhaul Parameters	p. 306
8.3.1 Introduction	p. 306
8.4 Repeater Backhaul Engineering	p. 308
8.4.1 Design Rules	p. 308
8.4.2 Coax Backhaul	p. 310
8.4.3 Optical Fiber Backhaul	p. 311
8.4.4 Free-Space Optic Backhaul (FSO)	p. 316
8.4.5 Radio Point-to-Point Backhauls	p. 319
8.4.6 Backhaul Enhancement by Diversity	p. 321
8.5 Backhaul Cost Considerations	p. 322
8.5.1 Cost Contributors	p. 322
8.5.2 Cost	p. 323
9 Repeater Economics	p. 325
9.1 Baseline Networks	p. 325
9.1.1 Network Distribution in Typical Markets	p. 326
9.1.2 Coverage - Capacity Model	p. 327
9.2 Repeater Embedded Networks	p. 329
9.2.1 Constituting Relations	p. 329
9.2.2 Relevant Scenarios	p. 330
9.3 Cost Constituents	p. 330
9.3.1 Tower Cost	p. 331
9.3.2 Tx Power Cost	p. 332
9.3.3 Backhaul Cost	p. 332
9.3.4 BTS and Repeater Cost	p. 333
9.4 Cost Model for Area Coverage	p. 333
9.4.1 Optimal Coverage of a Flat Area	p. 333
9.4.2 Optimal Coverage of a Length of Road	p. 336
9.5 Cost Model for Area Coverage by a Cluster of BTSs and Satellite Repeaters	p. 337
9.5.1 Large Area Coverage	p. 337
9.5.2 Supplementary Coverage	p. 338
9.6 Summary	p. 338
10 Advances in CDMA Repeaters	p. 341
10.1 Introduction	p. 341
10.2 Performance Monitoring and Control	p. 342
10.2.1 Application of a CDMA Modem in the Repeater	p. 342
10.3 Stabilization by Gain Control	p. 344
10.4 Interference Suppression	p. 345
10.4.1 Digital Repeaters	p. 345
10.4.2 Enhancing Isolation between the Backhaul and Service Antennas by Adaptive Interference Cancellation	p. 346
10.4.3 Adaptive Interference Cancellation	p. 347
10.4.4 Adaptive Cancellation of Radiated Interference	p. 348
10.5 Receive Diversity in Repeaters	p. 349
10.6 Transmit Diversity in Repeaters	p. 350
10.7 Network Parameters Readout from the Wireless Modem	p. 350
10.8 Antenna Control	p. 351
10.9 Tagging of Repeater-Served STs	p. 351
10.10 Location	p. 351
10.11 Measurement of Traffic Load through the Repeater	p. 352
10.12 Load Balancing between Cells and Sectors	p. 352
10.13 High Data Rate Systems	p. 353
Epilog	p. 357
Appendix A Reverse Link Interference in Heterogeneous Cell Clusters	p. 359
A.1 The Ring Model for Other Cells' Interference	p. 359
A.1.1 Introduction	p. 359
A.1.2 The Ring Model	p. 360
A.2 The Embedded Microcell Model	p. 363
Appendix B Evaluation of the Power Rise Equation	p. 369
Appendix C Orthogonality Factor Through the Cell	p. 373
C.1 Scattering and Reflections	p. 373
C.1.1 The Reflection Coefficient F	p. 374
C.1.2 The Population of Contributing Reflectors	p. 376
C.1.3 The Reflection Contributions	p. 377
C.2 Orthogonality Factor	p. 379
C.3 Unified Factor - Transitions	p. 381
C.3.1 Transition Near-Intermediate Zones	p. 381
C.3.2 Transition Intermediate-Far Zones	p. 382
Appendix D System Noise and Dynamic Range	p. 383
D.1 Noise Figure	p. 383
D.1.1 Definitions	p. 383
D.1.2 System Noise	p. 386
D.1.3 System Sensitivity	p. 388
D.2 Dynamic Range	p. 389
D.2.1 Basic NonLinear Model	p. 389
D.2.2 Intermodulation Products	p. 390
D.2.3 System Intercept Point	p. 396
D.2.4 Dynamic Range	p. 399
D.3 Beamforming and Combiners	p. 401
Appendix E Envelope Correlation and Power Correlation in Fading Channels	p. 405
Appendix F Eigenvalue Analysis of MRC	p. 407
Appendix G Optimal Sector Beamwidth	p. 409
G.1 Model	p. 409
G.2 Choice of Antenna Gain Function	p. 410
G.3 Total Sector Traffic Power	p. 411
G.4 Softer Handoff Boundary	p. 411
G.5 Discussion	p. 413
G.5.1 Limits on the Analysis	p. 413
G.5.2 Optimal Beamwidth	p. 413
G.5.3 Effect of the SrHO	p. 413
Appendix H Cellular Bands and Frequency Allocations	p. 415
About the Authors	p. 417
Index	p. 419

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