Ethics of emerging technologies : scientific facts and moral challenges

Title:

Personal Author:

Budinger, Thomas F. (Thomas Francis), 1932-

Publication Information:

Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, 2006

ISBN:

9780471692126

Subject Term:

Technology -- Philosophy

Technology -- Moral and ethical aspects

Science -- Moral and ethical aspects

Added Author:

Budinger, Miriam D.

Available:*

Library	Item Barcode	Call Number	Material Type	Item Category 1	Status
Searching... PSZ JB	30000010113005	T14 B82 2006	Open Access Book	Book	Searching... Unknown

An insightful guide to understanding and navigating the ethicalissues faced by anyone affected by the ethical dilemmas associatedwith current and emerging technologies

Ethics of Emerging Technologies provides the background, insight,and tools for approaching and solving ethical dilemmas across abroad range of topics. The text discusses ethical problems, usingexamples and reasoning tools that will aid engineers, scientists,managers, administrators, and the public who wish to understandrisks, benefits, and possible approaches to resolving conflictsassociated with new technologies in the context of the globalcommunity.

Solutions we choose to ethical dilemmas accompanying newtechnologies will profoundly affect future generations. Scientificfacts and guides to decision-making for all associated withemerging technologies are presented. Some of the topics are:
* Human health and environmental effects of alternative energyproduction methods
* Communications and privacy
* Plagiarism and authorship
* Genetic modification of organisms
* Human and animal experimentation
* Synthetic biology and bioterrorism
* Confidentiality in science, engineering, and businesscommunications
* Risks and consequences of enhancing human beings through newtechnologies
* Cloning of human beings and stem cell research
* Brain modifications
* Space exploration

Author Notes

Thomas F. Budinger, MD, PhD, is Professor in the Department of Bioengineering and the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at the University of California, Berkeley; Professor in Residence in the Department of Radiology at the University of California, San Francisco; head of the Department of Nuclear Medicine & Functional Imaging at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Miriam D. Budinger, MD, is currently a Visiting Scholar at the University of California, Berkeley

Preface	p. xiii
1 Ethical Principles, Reasoning, and Decision Making	p. 1
Introduction	p. 1
Designing Solutions to Ethical Dilemmas	p. 3
Evolution of Ethical Principles	p. 6
Virtue Ethics	p. 7
Justice Ethics	p. 8
Rules Ethics	p. 10
Rights Ethics	p. 10
Duty Ethics	p. 11
Modern Duty Ethics and Ross's Prima Facie Duties	p. 14
Utilitarianism	p. 17
Analysis of Duty Ethics vs. Utilitarianism	p. 20
Autonomy vs. Utilitarianism	p. 21
Utilitarianism vs. Justice: Allocation of Limited Resources	p. 23
Other Moral Theories	p. 24
Cultural Relativism	p. 24
Pragmatism	p. 25
Pluralism	p. 25
Subjectivism	p. 25
Minimum Conception of Morality	p. 26
Other Concepts and Ideologies	p. 26
Principles That Guide Human Experimentation	p. 27
Dangers of Expediency and the Slippery Slope Theory	p. 30
Learning Values and Cheating in Life	p. 31
Synopsis of Tools for Resolving Ethical Dilemmas	p. 32
Chapter Summary	p. 33
References	p. 34
Additional Reading	p. 36
Problem Set	p. 37
2 Ethics in Scientific Research	p. 39
Introduction	p. 39
Definition of Scientific Misconduct	p. 40
Categories of Scientific Misconduct	p. 41
Unethical Conduct by Researchers	p. 41
Ethical Transgressions by Authors	p. 42
Ethical Transgressions by Reviewers	p. 44
Examples of Scientific Misconduct	p. 45
Responsible Authorship	p. 54
Guidelines for Authorship for Bioscience Journals	p. 55
National Academy of Sciences Guidance on Responsible Authorship	p. 56
Practical Guidelines for Assigning Authorship	p. 57
Ranking of Authors	p. 58
Stealing and Copyright	p. 59
Plagiarism	p. 59
Motives for Scientific Misconduct and Countermeasures	p. 61
Discovery of Scientific Misconduct and Whistleblowing	p. 62
Criteria for Whistleblowing	p. 63
Consequences of Being Accused of Scientific Misconduct, and Protection When Accused of Scientific Misconduct	p. 65
Whistleblower Protection Act (WPA)	p. 65
Approaches to Scientific Misconduct: What Should Be Done?	p. 66
Responsibilities of Individual Researchers	p. 66
Responsibilities of Government, Universities, and Research Institutions	p. 66
Conflict of Interest as a Category of Scientific Misconduct	p. 67
Managing Conflicts of Interest	p. 68
Conflicts between Goals of Commercialism and the Tenets of Academia	p. 69
Chapter Summary	p. 70
References	p. 71
Additional Reading	p. 74
Appendix	p. 74
Appendix 2.1 Federal Policy on Research Misconduct	p. 74
Problem Set	p. 78
3 Information Technology Ethics	p. 81
Introduction	p. 81
The Benefits and Problems Generated by the Information Technologies	p. 84
Benefits	p. 84
Problems Associated with IT	p. 85
Invasion of Privacy Due to Faulty Engineering of Computer Systems and Software Programs	p. 85
Risks to Privacy by Outsourcing Private Information to Other Countries	p. 88
Collection, Storage, Selling, and Unauthorized Use of Personal Information	p. 88
Loss of Privacy by Monitoring	p. 89
Ethics of Camera Surveillance in Public Places	p. 91
Unauthorized Use of Intellectual Property (IP)	p. 91
Hacking and Hoaxes	p. 93
Plagiarism	p. 94
Journalism on the Internet	p. 94
Theft, Deception, and Fraud on the Internet	p. 95
Censorship in Internet Communications	p. 95
Spam	p. 97
Availability of Information Technologies	p. 97
Chapter Summary	p. 98
References	p. 99
Additional Reading	p. 100
Appendix	p. 100
Appendix 3.1 Committee for the Protection of Human Subjects: Security of Research Subjects' Personally Identifiable Data Held by Researchers (Excerpts from http://chps.berkeley.edu)	p. 100
Problem Set	p. 102
4 Business Ethics	p. 104
Introduction	p. 104
Historical Background	p. 106
Design Strategy for Corporate Ethical Dilemmas	p. 108
Corporate Practices Challenge Ethical Theories	p. 110
Differences in Corporate Tactics	p. 111
Credo vs. Vision Statement	p. 113
Guidelines and Pitfalls of Corporate Strategies	p. 114
Conflicts in Ethical Theories	p. 115
Beneficence to the Community vs. Duty to the Stockholders	p. 116
Utilitarianism vs. Justice	p. 117
Duty vs. Justice and Virtue	p. 119
Non-Malfeasance vs. Utilitarianism	p. 120
Virtue vs. Duty	p. 122
Corporate Responsibilities	p. 126
Responsibilities to Employees	p. 126
Ethnic, Religious, and Sexual Harassment Issues in the Workplace	p. 126
Responsibilities to the Public	p. 128
Responsibilities in Business with a Foreign Country	p. 129
Responsibilities to the Ecosystem	p. 129
The Ethics of the Professional Employee	p. 130
Confidentiality	p. 130
Confidentiality When Changing Jobs	p. 134
Loyalty vs. Duty to Report Misdeeds	p. 135
Whistleblower Responsibility of Corporate Employees	p. 135
Obligations to Report Safety Violations or Threats to the Public	p. 137
Conflicts of Interest	p. 137
Federal Reaction to Corporate Fraud	p. 138
Chapter Summary	p. 138
References	p. 139
Additional Reading	p. 142
Web Sites Helpful for Business Ethics Issues	p. 143
Appendix	p. 143
Appendix 4.1 Some Strategic Rules from Sun Tzu (Michaelson 2001)	p. 143
Problem Set	p. 144
5 Environmental Ethics	p. 147
Introduction	p. 147
Current Energy Production and Use	p. 150
Predicted Energy Needs for the Future	p. 151
Transportation: the Greatest Consumer of Fossil Fuels	p. 153
Energy Use by Communications Technologies	p. 154
Alternative Energy Technologies	p. 155
Fuel Cells	p. 155
Nuclear Reactors	p. 155
Nuclear Fusion as a Source of Energy	p. 158
Wind Production of Energy	p. 160
Hydroelectric Production and Storage of Energy	p. 161
Solar Source of Electricity and Fuel	p. 161
Moral, Spiritual, and Ideological Perspectives on the Environment	p. 162
Using vs. Saving the Environment	p. 163
The Dimensions of the Moral Community	p. 163
Moral Theories and the Environment	p. 164
Religious or Spiritual Approaches to the Environment	p. 165
Ideological Approaches to the Environment	p. 167
Anthropocentrism	p. 167
Biocentrism	p. 167
Ecocentrism	p. 168
Deep Ecology	p. 168
Ecofeminist Approach to the Environment	p. 168
Modern Pantheist Approach	p. 169
A Conceptual Structure for Environmental Ethics Based on Relative Value	p. 169
The Global Environment	p. 171
Responsibility for Technologies We Create	p. 171
The Tragedy of the Commons	p. 172
Where We Go from Here	p. 172
Societal Efforts to Prevent Environment Degradation and Promote Sustainability	p. 173
Summary of International Conferences to Protect and Sustain the Environment	p. 174
The Vienna Convention on the Protection of the Ozone Layer, Vienna, Austria, 1985, and the Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer, Montreal, Canada, 1987	p. 174
U.N. Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, 1992	p. 175
U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change, Kyoto, Japan, 1997	p. 176
United Nations Millennium Summit, New York, New York, 2000	p. 176
United Nations World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2002	p. 177
U.N. World Environment Conference of Mayors, San Francisco, California, June 2005	p. 178
The G8 Annual Conferences	p. 179
Chapter Summary	p. 179
References	p. 180
Additional Reading	p. 183
Appendix	p. 184
Appendix 5.1 Physical Dimensions and Units	p. 184
Problem Set	p. 185
6 Ethics of Genetically Modified Organisms	p. 186
Introduction	p. 186
Processes Involved in Genetic Engineering of Plants and Animals	p. 188
Genetic Modification of Plants without the Introduction of Foreign DNA	p. 189
Stimulation of Mutations in Plants by Chemicals or Ionizing Radiation	p. 189
Stimulation of Transposons to Induce Changes in the Plant Genome by Stress	p. 189
In Situ Microsurgery to Stimulate Transposon-Induced Changes in Plants and Animals	p. 190
Genetic Modification of Plants and Animals by Transfer of Foreign DNA	p. 191
Genetic Modification by Microinjection of DNA into Cells	p. 191
Genetic Modification by Gene Transfer Using Plasmids and Bacteria	p. 192
Biolistic Impaction Method of Gene Transfer into Plants	p. 193
Growth in the Use of GMO Products	p. 194
Benefits and Risks of GMOs	p. 195
Benefits	p. 195
Risks of Genetically Modified Organisms	p. 196
Concerns about Physical Escape of GMOs into the Wild	p. 197
Concerns about the Biology of Horizontal Gene Transfer	p. 198
Concerns about Biodiversity and Perturbations in Biologic Evolution	p. 200
Concerns about Marker Genes and Other Modifications	p. 200
Concerns about Genetically Modified Animals	p. 200
Concerns about Who Will Benefit	p. 201
Concerns about GMO Labeling	p. 202
Cumulative Effect of Concerns about GMOs	p. 203
Ongoing Efforts to Evaluate and Provide Information on GMOs	p. 204
U. S. Government Oversight and Regulations	p. 205
FDA's Biotechnology Policy	p. 205
USDA/APHIS Regulation of Bioengineered Plants	p. 206
Environmental Protection Agency Functions	p. 206
Involvement of the U.S. Congress	p. 206
The United States vs. the European Union Stance on GMOs	p. 207
International Regulatory Approach to GMOs: U.N. Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety	p. 207
Ethical Issues	p. 208
Chapter Summary	p. 213
References	p. 214
Additional Reading	p. 217
Appendices	p. 218
Appendix 6.1 Estimating the Future Increases in World Population	p. 218
Appendix 6.2 Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety: Risk Assessment	p. 220
Problem Set	p. 222
7 Medical Ethics	p. 223
Background	p. 223
General Medical Ethics	p. 224
Codes of Professional Conduct	p. 224
Patients' Rights to Information	p. 224
Confidentiality	p. 226
Responsibilities of the Physician Regarding Disclosure of Patient Information	p. 228
Ownership of Medical Information	p. 228
Refusal of Treatment	p. 229
Ethics of Rendering Medical Aid	p. 231
When Options for Continuing Care Conflict with a Physician's Ethics	p. 234
Ethics of Medical Mistakes	p. 234
Physician Conflicts of Interest	p. 235
The Ethics of Futile Care	p. 237
Use of Medical Marijuana	p. 239
The Ethics of Dying	p. 240
Who Decides on Life Support and Death?	p. 241
Advance Health Care Directives	p. 243
Arguments against Advance Health Care Directives	p. 247
Sacrifice of One Life to Save Another	p. 247
Physician-Assisted Suicide	p. 249
Summary of the Ethics of Physician-Assisted Suicide	p. 253
Resource Allocation and Organ Transplantation	p. 253
Ways to Maximize the Availability of Scarce Resources	p. 256
Ethical Considerations of Organ Transplantation	p. 257
Use of Fetal Tissues	p. 257
Transplantation Procedures for Prisoners	p. 258
Buying and Selling of Body Tissues and Organs	p. 258
Distribution of Care When Resources Are Limited	p. 259
Treatment in Situations of Extreme Illness	p. 261
Human Experimentation and Animal Experimentation	p. 262
Chapter Summary	p. 262
References	p. 262
Additional Reading	p. 265
Appendices	p. 265
Appendix 7.1 California Advance Health Care Directive	p. 265
(California Probate Code Section 4701)	p. 265
Appendix 7.2 Organ Transplantation Evaluation by Institute of Medicine	p. 273
Appendix 7.3 AMA Section E-2.03 Allocation of Limited Medical Resources	p. 274
Problem Set	p. 274
8 Ethics of Human and Animal Experimentation	p. 277
Ethics of Human Experimentation	p. 277
Background	p. 277
Current Guidelines for Research on Human Beings	p. 279
IRB Duties	p. 279
IRB Composition	p. 280
Guidelines for IRB Activities	p. 281
Informed Consent Procedures	p. 282
Variety of Human Experiments	p. 284
Proposed Modifications of Regulations on Protection for Human Subjects Involved in Medical Research	p. 285
Noted Examples of Human Experimentation	p. 287
Summary of Human Experimentation	p. 288
Ethics of Animal Experimentation	p. 289
Cultural Attitudes toward Animals	p. 289
Animal Malfeasance vs. Medical Benefits	p. 290
Federal Regulations	p. 292
Reduction in the Need for Animals	p. 294
Mircoarray and Phage Array Technologies	p. 294
Animal Imaging Technologies	p. 295
Transgenic Animals	p. 296
Summary of Issues in Animal Experimentation	p. 297
Chapter Summary	p. 297
References	p. 298
Additional Reading	p. 299
Appendix	p. 299
Appendix 8.1 Office of Human Research Protection (OHRP) Informed Consent Checklist-Basic and Additional Elements of the Consent Form for Research Subjects	p. 299
Problem Set	p. 300
9 Ethics of Assisted Reproductive Technologies	p. 303
Introduction	p. 303
Types of ART	p. 304
In Vitro Fertilization	p. 304
Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis (PGD)	p. 307
Polar Body Analysis	p. 308
Embryo Biopsy	p. 308
Success Rates of ART	p. 310
Risks of ART	p. 311
Regulation of ART in the United States	p. 316
Ethical Concerns about ART	p. 316
The Ethics of IVF	p. 317
Ethical Issues of PGD	p. 320
Cloning	p. 322
Reproductive Cloning	p. 322
Reproductive and Therapeutic Cloning Differences	p. 324
Experience with Reproductive Cloning in Animals	p. 325
Ethical Issues Surrounding Reproductive and Therapeutic Cloning	p. 326
Ethical Issues Surrounding Reproductive Cloning	p. 326
Arguments for Reproductive Cloning	p. 327
Arguments against Reproductive Cloning	p. 328
Justice and Fairness in the Cloning Debate	p. 329
Chapter Summary	p. 331
References	p. 332
Additional Reading	p. 335
Appendices	p. 336
Appendix 9.1	p. 336
Appendix 9.2	p. 338
Problem Set	p. 340
10 Ethics of Stem Cell Technologies	p. 342
Introduction	p. 342
Background	p. 342
Types of Stem Cells and Their Origins	p. 344
Embryonic Stem (ES) Cells	p. 344
Alternative Sources of Embryonic Stem Cells	p. 347
Embryonic Germ (EG) Cells	p. 348
Adult Stem Cells	p. 348
Hematopoietic Stem Cells	p. 349
Cord-Blood Stem Cells	p. 350
Current Status of Embryonic Stem Cell Research	p. 350
Status of Adult Stem Cell Research	p. 356
Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation	p. 357
Neurogenesis	p. 358
Myogenesis	p. 360
Heart Muscle Regeneration	p. 360
Liver Regeneration	p. 364
Pancreas Regeneration	p. 364
Lung Renewal	p. 364
Summary of Technical Status of Adult Stem Cell Research	p. 364
Ethical Issues in Embryonic Stem Cell Research and Therapy	p. 366
Chapter Summary	p. 374
References	p. 376
Additional Reading	p. 381
Problem Set	p. 381
11 Ethics of Enhancement Technologies	p. 383
Introduction	p. 383
Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis	p. 385
Ethical Implications of PGD	p. 385
Gene Therapy	p. 386
Overview of Uses for Enhancement and Methodology	p. 386
Somatic Gene Therapy	p. 389
Gene Therapy for Severe Combined Immunodeficiency with Adenosine Deaminase Deficiency (ADA-SCID)	p. 390
Children Undergoing Gene Therapy for X-Linked SCID	p. 391
History of Gene Therapy	p. 392
Gene Therapy for Parkinson's Disease	p. 393
Gene Therapy for Hemophilia	p. 394
Somatic Gene Therapy for Human Enhancement	p. 395
Gene Therapy to Enhance Muscle Strength	p. 395
In Utero Somatic Gene Therapy	p. 396
Regulation of Somatic Gene Therapy	p. 397
Current Status and Future Plans for Human Gene Therapy	p. 397
Ethical Issues of Somatic Gene Therapy for Enhancement	p. 398
Germline Gene Therapy	p. 400
Methodology of Proposed Germline Gene Therapy	p. 400
Ethical Issues of Germline Gene Therapy	p. 401
Arguments for Germline Gene Therapy	p. 402
Arguments against Germline Gene Therapy	p. 403
Oversight for Germline Engineering	p. 404
Enhancement by Drugs or Other Means	p. 405
Drug Use to Enhance Performance in Sport	p. 405
Background	p. 405
History of Drug Use in Modern Sport	p. 406
Substances Used to Enhance Performance (Doping)	p. 406
Caffeine	p. 407
Ephedrine, Phenylephrine, Epinephrine, and Ephedra and other Alpha-Adrenergic Drugs	p. 408
Amphetamines and Methylphenidate (Ritalin)	p. 409
Growth Hormone	p. 409
Diuretics	p. 410
Erythropoietin (EPO)	p. 411
Tetrahydrogestrinone (THG)	p. 411
Creatine and Androstenidione	p. 412
Reasons Athletes Use Drugs	p. 414
Prevalence of Doping	p. 414
Enhancement of Behavior through Drugs	p. 415
Body Enhancement by Surgery	p. 417
Ethics of Behavioral and Physical Enhancements	p. 418
Ethical Duties of the Medical Practitioner	p. 419
Chapter Summary	p. 420
References	p. 422
Additional Reading	p. 427
Appendix 11.1	p. 427
Problem Set	p. 431
12 Ethics of Emerging Technologies	p. 433
Introduction	p. 433
Risk Analysis and Cost-Benefit Analysis	p. 437
Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA)	p. 442
Nanotechnology	p. 444
Synthetic Biology	p. 445
Ethics of Emerging Threats of Terrorism	p. 447
Neuroenhancements and Neuroengineering	p. 448
Deep Brain Stimulation	p. 449
Brain-Computer Interfacing	p. 450
Regenerative and Rehabilitative Neurology	p. 451
Brain Imaging	p. 452
Psychopharmacology	p. 454
Ethics of Human Space Exploration	p. 454
Ethics in Colonization of the Moon and Mars	p. 456
The Role of Government in Evaluating the Risks of New Technologies	p. 458
Chapter Summary	p. 460
References	p. 461
Additional Reading	p. 464
Problem Set	p. 464
Glossary	p. 466
Index	p. 477

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