Biomimetic nanoceramics in clinical use : from materials to applications

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Recent developments in nanostructured materials have led to a shift in focus away from the replacement of tissues and towards regeneration. Nanoceramics with biomimetic properties have great potential in bone regeneration and new synthesis strategies have been developed to obtain materials with improved biocompatibility and multifunctional performance. The aim is to develop fully biocompatible implants, which exhibit biological responses at the nanometric scale in the same way that biogenic materials do. Current man-made implants are not fully biocompatible and always result in a foreign body reaction involving inflammatory response and fibrous encapsulation. Great efforts have, therefore, been made to develop synthetic strategies that tailor implant surfaces at the nanometric scale. The intention is to optimize the interaction at the tissue/implant interface thus improving quality of life for patients with enhanced results and shorter rehabilitation periods. This book deals with 'new bioceramics' for 'new applications'. Current and future applications are considered in terms of chemical composition, structure and properties. It explains the processes that (from the point of view of solid state and sol-gel chemistry) lead to better bone implants and other medical devices. The book is structured to make it useful for students of biomaterials, but also as a reference for specialists interested in specific topics. Didactic figures and schemes make it easy for under-graduates to understand and the extended bibliography is indispensable for researchers. The introductions to each chapter deal with some common fundamental concepts thus allowing the comprehension of each one independently. The first chapter describes biological hard tissues in vertebrates, from the point of view of mineralization processes. Concepts of hard tissue mineralization are employed to explain how nature works and an overview of artificial alternatives is provided. Chapter 2 details several synthesis methodologies used to prepare nano-apatites. The aim is to obtain artificial carbonated calcium deficient nano-apatites that resemble, as closely as possible, natural biological apatites. A review on synthesis methods is collected in the bibliography. Chapter 3 describes, in-depth, the biomimetic processes used to prepare apatites similar to biological ones. It focuses on hard tissue-related biomimetism and deals with nanoceramics obtained as a consequence of biomimetic processes. Valuable information about the most widely used biomimetic solutions and evaluation methods are included. The final chapter provides an overview of the current and potential clinical applications of apatite-like biomimetic nanoceramics, intended as biomaterials for hard tissue repair, therapy and diagnosis.

Author Notes

María Vallet-Regí studied Chemistry at the Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM) and received her PhD at the same University in 1974. She is Professor of Inorganic Chemistry and Head of the Department of Inorganic and Bioinorganic Chemistry at the Faculty of Pharmacy (UCM). Her current research field is solid state chemistry, covering aspects of synthesis, characterisation and reactivity in oxides and bioceramics. Daniel Arcos completed his PhD on the synthesis and evaluation of bioactive glasses and glass-ceramics in 2002. He has worked previously on structural studies of silicon containing hydroxyapatites. Currently, his research is focused on nanostructured materials for biomedical applications.

Chapter 1 Biological Apatites in Bone and Teeth
1.1 Hard-Tissue Biomineralisation: How Nature Works	p. 1
1.1.1 Bone Formation	p. 1
1.1.2 A Discussion on Biomineralisation	p. 11
1.1.3 Biomineralisation Processes	p. 14
1.1.4 Biominerals	p. 16
1.1.5 Inorganic Components: Composition and Most Frequent Structures	p. 18
1.1.6 Organic Components: Vesicles and Polymer Matrices	p. 20
1.2 Alternatives to Obtain Nanosized Calcium-Deficient Carbonate-Hydroxy-Apatites	p. 21
1.2.1 The Synthetic Route	p. 21
1.2.2 The Biomimetic Process	p. 22
References	p. 23
Chapter 2 Synthetic Nanoapatites
2.1 Introduction	p. 25
2.1.1 General Remarks on the Reactivity of Solids	p. 25
2.1.2 Objectives and Preparation Strategies	p. 27
2.2 Synthesis Methods	p. 28
2.2.1 Synthesis of Apatites by the Ceramic Method	p. 28
2.2.2 Synthesis of Apatites by Wet Route Methods	p. 32
2.2.3 Synthesis of Apatites by Aerosol Processes	p. 39
2.2.4 Other Methods Based on Precipitation from Aqueous Solutions	p. 41
2.2.5 Apatites in the Absence of Gravity	p. 44
2.2.6 Carbonate Apatites	p. 44
2.2.7 Silica as a Component in Apatite Precursor Ceramic Materials	p. 45
2.2.8 Apatite Coatings	p. 48
2.2.9 Precursors to Obtain Apatites	p. 50
2.2.10 Additional Synthesis Methods	p. 52
2.2.11 Sintered Apatites	p. 52
References	p. 55
Chapter 3 Biomimetic Nanoapatites on Bioceramics
3.1 Introduction	p. 61
3.1.1 Biomimetic Nanoapatites and Bioactive Ceramics	p. 62
3.1.2 Biomimetic Nanoapatites on Nonceramic Biomaterials. Two Examples: Polyactive and Titanium Alloys	p. 63
3.1.3 Significance of Biomimetic Nanoapatite Growth on Bioceramic Implants	p. 64
3.2 Simulated Physiological Solutions for Biomimetic Procedures	p. 66
3.3 Biomimetic Crystallisation Methods	p. 70
3.4 Calcium Phosphate Bioceramics for Biomimetic Crystallisation of Nanoapatites. General Remarks	p. 72
3.4.1 Bone-Tissue Response to Calcium Phosphate Bioceramics	p. 72
3.4.2 Calcium Phosphate Bioceramics and Biological Environment. Interfacial Events	p. 73
3.4.3 Physical-Chemical Events in CaP Bioceramics during the Biomimetic Process	p. 74
3.5 Biomimetic Nanoceramics on Hydroxyapatite and Advanced Apatite-Derived Bioceramics	p. 80
3.5.1 Hydroxyapatite, Oxyhydroxyapatite and Ca-Deficient Hydroxyapatite	p. 80
3.5.2 Silicon-Substituted Apatites	p. 81
3.6 Biphasic Calcium Phosphates (BCPs)	p. 85
3.6.1 An Introduction to BCPs	p. 85
3.6.2 Biomimetic Nanoceramics on BCP Biomaterials	p. 87
3.7 Biomimetic Nanoceramics on Bioactive Glasses	p. 88
3.7.1 An Introduction to Bioactive Glasses	p. 88
3.7.2 Composition and Structure of Melt-Derived Bioactive Glasses	p. 89
3.7.3 Sol-Gel Bioactive Glasses	p. 90
3.7.4 The Bioactive Process in SiO[subscript 2]-Based Glasses	p. 91
3.7.5 Biomimetic Nanoapatite Formation on SiO[subscript 2]-Based Bioactive Glasses: The Glass Surface	p. 92
3.7.6 Role of P[subscript 2]O[subscript 5] in the Surface Properties and the In Vitro Bioactivity of Sol-Gel Glasses	p. 97
3.7.7 Highly Ordered Mesoporous Bioactive Glasses (MBG)	p. 98
3.7.8 Biomimetism Evaluation on Silica-Based Bioactive Glasses	p. 101
3.8 Biomimetism in Organic-Inorganic Hybrid Materials	p. 105
3.8.1 An Introduction to Organic-Inorganic Hybrid Materials	p. 105
3.8.2 Synthesis of Biomimetic Nanoapatites on Class I Hybrid Materials	p. 106
3.8.3 Synthesis of Biomimetic Nanoapatites on Class II Hybrid Materials	p. 107
3.8.4 Bioactive Star Gels	p. 108
References	p. 111
Chapter 4 Clinical Applications of Apatite-Derived Nanoceramics
4.1 Introduction	p. 122
4.2 Nanoceramics for Bone-Tissue Regeneration	p. 123
4.2.1 Bone Cell Adhesion on Nanoceramics. The Role of the Proteins in the Specific Cell-Material Attachment	p. 125
4.2.2 Bioinspired Nanoapatites. Supramolecular Chemistry as a Tool for Better Bioceramics	p. 127
4.3 Nanocomposites for Bone-Grafting Applications	p. 129
4.3.1 Nano-HA-Based Composites	p. 131
4.3.2 Mechanical Properties of HA-Derived Nanocomposites	p. 131
4.3.3 Nanoceramic Filler and Polymer Matrix Anchorage	p. 133
4.3.4 Significance of the Nanoparticle Dispersion Homogeneity	p. 135
4.3.5 Biocompatibility Behaviour of HA-Derived Nanocomposites	p. 136
4.3.6 Nanocomposite-Based Fibres	p. 137
4.3.7 Nanocomposite-Based Microspheres	p. 138
4.3.8 Nanocomposite Scaffolds for Bone-Tissue Engineering	p. 139
4.4 Nanostructured Biomimetic Coatings	p. 140
4.4.1 Sol-Gel-Based Nano-HA Coatings	p. 141
4.4.2 Nano-HA Coatings Prepared by Biomimetic Deposition	p. 145
4.5 Nanoapatites for Diagnosis and Drug/Gene-Delivery Systems	p. 147
4.5.1 Biomimetic Nanoapatites as Biological Probes	p. 147
4.5.2 Biomimetic Nanoapatites for Drug and Gene Delivery	p. 148
References	p. 154
Subject Index	p. 164

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