Magnetism in medicine : a handbook

This second, completely updated and extended edition of the only reference work in this growing field of medical physics focuses on biomagnetic instrumentation as well as applications in cardiology and neurology. New chapters have been added on fetal magnetography and magnetic field therapy, as well as the safety aspects of magnetic fields.
Written by well-known specialists from Germany, USA, Canada, Japan, the Netherlands and Scandinavia, the result is a manual for researchers in this field as well as for those who apply modern methods based on magnetism in medical practice. It equally provides a detailed overview for newcomers to the field as well as for experts familiar with only one part of the area.

Author Notes

Wilfried Andrä, born in Weimar in 1923, received his physics PhD from the University of Jena in 1957 and gained the degree of 'Doctor of Natural Sciences' at the Technical University of Dresden in 1970. In 1969 he was appointed Professor at the Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften in Berlin. His field of work was solid state magnetism (domains, thin films, information storage, high temperature superconductivity, micromagnetism). After his retirement his main interest moved to the application of magnetism in medicine. Prof. Andrä is author or co-author of more than 130 publications in international scientific journals and several review articles.

Hannes Nowak was born in Weinsberg, Germany, in 1948. He received his physics (PhD from the University of Wroclaw, Poland, in 1973 and finished his doctoral thesis in SQUID application at the University of Jena in 1980. He qualified as professor in 1989 and became a specialist in biomagnetism (SQUID and instrumentation, shielding, noise reduction, medical applications and magnetic source imaging). Dr. Nowak is the author or co-author of more than 50 refereed journal publications, 75 conference proceeding articles and more than 110 posters.

Prof. Dr. Wilfried Andrä
Institute of Physical High-Technologies
Jena, Germany

Dr. Hannes Nowak
Biomagnetic Center
Department of Neurology
University of Jena, Germany

Urs HafeliDmitri BerkovWilfried Andra and Hannes NowakJurgen H. Bernhardt and Gunnar BrixHannes NowakHannes NowakGerhard Stroink and Birgit Hailer and Peter Van LeeuwenThomas R. Knosche and Nobukazu Nakasato and Michael Eiselt and Jens HaueisenUwe Schneider and Ekkehard SchleussnerWerner A. KaiserArnulf OppeltDebiao Li and Andrew C. LarsonOliver Speck and Axel Schreiber and Clemens Janz and Jurgen HennigMichael E. Moseley and Roland Bammer and Joachim RotherPetra Schmalbrock and Donald W. ChakeresClifford R. Weiss and Jonathan S. LewinWerner A. Kaiser and Stefan O.R. Pfleiderer and Karl-Heinz Herrmann and Jurgen R. ReichenbachPeter BachertWilfried AndraHendryk Richert and Olaf Kosch and Peter GornertWilfried Andra and Christoph WernerShoogo Ueno and Minoru FujikiRoland Fischer and David E. FarrellRudolf Hergt and Wilfried AndraMichael Apel and Uwe A.O. Heinlein and Stefan Miltenyi and Jurgen Schmitz and John D.M. CampbellChristoph Alexiou and Roland JurgonsWilfried Andra and Urs HafeliJens Haueisen

Preface	p. XVII
List of Contributors	p. XIX
1 Introduction	p. 1
1.1 The History of Magnetism in Medicine	p. 3
1.1.1 Origins	p. 3
1.1.2 First Medical Uses of Magnets	p. 4
1.1.3 Use of Attracting Forces of Magnets in Medicine	p. 5
1.1.4 Treatment of Nervous Diseases and Mesmerism	p. 10
1.1.5 Other Medical Uses of Magnets and Magnetism	p. 13
1.1.6 The Influence of Magnetic Fields on Man	p. 18
References	p. 22
1.2 Basic Physical Principles	p. 26
1.2.1 Introduction	p. 26
1.2.2 The Electromagnetic Field Concept and Maxwell Equations	p. 27
1.2.2.1 Maxwell Equations in a General Case of Time-Dependent Fields	p. 27
1.2.2.2 Constant (Time-Independent) Fields: Electro- and Magnetostatics	p. 29
1.2.2.3 Electric and Magnetic Potentials: Concept of a Dipole	p. 30
1.2.2.4 Force, Torque and Energy in Magnetic Field	p. 35
1.2.3 Magnetic Field in Condensed Matter: General Concepts	p. 38
1.2.3.1 Maxwell Equations in Condensed Matter: Magnetization	p. 38
1.2.3.2 Classification of Materials According to their Magnetic Properties	p. 40
1.2.3.3 Mean Field Theory of Ferromagnetism	p. 42
1.2.4 Magnetic Field in Condensed Matter: Special Topics	p. 44
1.2.4.1 Magnetic Energy Contributions	p. 44
1.2.4.2 Magnetic Domains and Domain Walls	p. 51
1.2.4.3 Magnetization Curves and Hysteresis Loops	p. 53
1.2.4.4 Single-Domain Particles and Superparamagnetism	p. 56
1.2.4.5 Irreversible Magnetic Relaxation	p. 59
1.2.4.6 Reconstruction of Magnetization Distribution Inside a Body from Magnetic Field Measurements	p. 61
Appendix	p. 63
References	p. 64
1.3 Creating and Measuring Magnetic Fields	p. 65
1.3.1 Introduction	p. 65
1.3.2 The Generation of Magnetic Fields	p. 65
1.3.3 The Measurement of Magnetic Fields	p. 70
1.3.4 Discussion	p. 74
References	p. 74
1.4 Safety Aspects of Magnetic Fields	p. 76
1.4.1 Introduction	p. 76
1.4.2 Risk Evaluation and Guidance on Protection	p. 76
1.4.2.1 Evaluation Process	p. 77
1.4.2.2 Development of Guidance on Protection	p. 77
1.4.3 Static and Extremely Slowly Time-Varying Magnetic Fields	p. 78
1.4.3.1 Interaction Mechanisms and Biological Bases for Limiting Exposure	p. 78
1.4.3.2 Epidemiology	p. 80
1.4.3.3 Safety Aspects and Exposure Levels	p. 81
1.4.4 Time-Varying Magnetic Fields	p. 81
1.4.4.1 Interaction Mechanisms and Biological Bases for Limiting Exposure	p. 81
1.4.4.2 Epidemiology	p. 83
1.4.4.3 Safety Aspects and Exposure Levels	p. 84
1.4.5 Electromagnetic Fields	p. 84
1.4.5.1 Interaction Mechanisms and Biological Bases for Limiting Exposure	p. 84
1.4.5.2 Epidemiology	p. 88
1.4.5.3 Safety Aspects and Exposure Limits	p. 89
1.4.6 Protection of Patients and Volunteers Undergoing MR Procedures	p. 89
1.4.6.1 Static Magnetic Fields	p. 90
1.4.6.2 Time-Varying Magnetic Gradient Fields	p. 90
1.4.6.3 Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields	p. 91
1.4.6.4 Contraindications	p. 93
References	p. 94
2 Biomagnetism	p. 97
2.1 Introduction	p. 99
2.2 Biomagnetic Instrumentation	p. 101
2.2.1 History	p. 101
2.2.2 Biomagnetic Fields	p. 102
2.2.3 Squid Sensor	p. 104
2.2.4 Shielding: Magnetically and Electrically Shielded Rooms	p. 109
2.2.5 Gradiometers	p. 113
2.2.6 Dewar/Cryostat	p. 116
2.2.7 Commercial Biomagnetic Measurement Devices	p. 117
2.2.7.1 4-D Neuroimaging	p. 118
2.2.7.2 VSM MedTech Ltd.	p. 126
2.2.7.3 Elekta Neuromag	p. 132
2.2.7.4 Advanced Technologies Biomagnetics (AtB) s.r.l.	p. 139
2.2.7.5 CardioMag Imaging	p. 142
2.2.7.6 Tristan Technologies, Inc.	p. 144
2.2.7.7 Philips Research, Hamburg	p. 146
2.2.8 Special Biomagnetic Measurement Devices	p. 148
2.2.8.1 Micro-Squid Systems	p. 148
2.2.8.2 The Jena 16-Channel Micro-Squid Device	p. 149
2.2.8.3 Planar Gradiometers	p. 149
2.2.8.4 Japanese 256-Channel Device (SSL-Project)	p. 151
2.2.8.5 Vector-Magnetometers	p. 151
2.2.8.6 Biomagnetic Devices with Cryocooler	p. 152
2.2.9 High-Temperature Superconductivity	p. 152
2.2.10 Perspectives	p. 154
References	p. 155
2.3 Cardiomagnetism	p. 164
2.3.1 Introduction	p. 164
2.3.1.1 Historical Background	p. 164
2.3.1.2 Electrophysiology	p. 165
2.3.2 Forward Solutions	p. 167
2.3.2.1 Introduction	p. 167
2.3.2.2 Single Current Dipole in an Infinite Homogeneous Conductive Medium	p. 167
2.3.2.3 Current Dipole in a Realistic Torso	p. 170
2.3.2.4 Extended Source Models	p. 172
2.3.2.5 Summary	p. 175
2.3.3 Inverse Solutions	p. 175
2.3.3.1 Introduction	p. 175
2.3.3.2 Model Data Using the Current Dipole as Source Model	p. 176
2.3.3.3 Model Data Using Distributed Sources as Source Model: Imaging	p. 178
2.3.3.4 Summary	p. 179
2.3.4 Validation	p. 180
2.3.5 Clinical Applications of Magnetocardiography	p. 183
2.3.6 Ischemic Heart Disease	p. 183
2.3.6.1 Analysis of MCG Signal Morphology	p. 184
2.3.6.2 Determination of Time Intervals	p. 185
2.3.6.3 Parameters of the Magnetic Field	p. 186
2.3.6.4 Source Parameters	p. 189
2.3.6.5 Conclusion	p. 191
2.3.7 Hypertensive Cardiovascular Disease	p. 191
2.3.7.1 Conclusion	p. 193
2.3.8 Cardiomyopathy	p. 193
2.3.8.1 Conclusion	p. 194
2.3.9 Cardiac Arrhythmias	p. 194
2.3.9.1 Atrial Arrhythmias	p. 195
2.3.9.2 Ventricular Pre-Excitation	p. 196
2.3.9.3 Ventricular Arrhythmias	p. 197
2.3.9.4 Risk Stratification for Malignant Arrhythmias After MI	p. 198
2.3.9.5 Conclusion	p. 200
2.3.10 Clinical Conclusions	p. 200
References	p. 201
2.4 Neuromagnetism	p. 210
2.4.1 Introduction	p. 210
2.4.2 The Generation of Magnetic Signals by the Brain	p. 211
2.4.2.1 Introduction	p. 211
2.4.2.2 Technical Development and Limits of Detection	p. 211
2.4.2.3 Electrophysiology of Brain Cells	p. 212
2.4.2.4 Extracellular Space	p. 215
2.4.2.5 Pathophysiology	p. 216
2.4.2.6 Final Remarks	p. 217
2.4.3 Analysis of Neuromagnetic Fields	p. 218
2.4.3.1 Signal Analysis	p. 218
2.4.3.2 Modeling and Source Reconstruction	p. 222
2.4.4 The Investigation of the Primary Sensory and Motor Systems	p. 230
2.4.4.1 Introduction	p. 230
2.4.4.2 Somatosensory System	p. 230
2.4.4.3 Auditory System	p. 232
2.4.4.4 Visual System	p. 232
2.4.4.5 Olfactory and Gustatory System	p. 234
2.4.4.6 Motor System	p. 235
2.4.4.7 Perspectives	p. 235
2.4.5 Neuromagnetic Fields and Brain Science: Cognitive Functions	p. 235
2.4.5.1 Brain Correlates of Cognition: Components and Localizations	p. 237
2.4.5.2 Human Communication	p. 238
2.4.5.3 Recognition of Objects: Perceptual Binding	p. 241
2.4.5.4 Actions: Planning, Execution, Perception, and Imagery	p. 242
2.4.5.5 Attention	p. 242
2.4.5.6 Memory	p. 243
2.4.5.7 Emotions	p. 244
2.4.6 Clinical Applications	p. 244
2.4.6.1 Introduction	p. 244
2.4.6.2 Somatosensory Evoked Fields (SEFs)	p. 244
2.4.6.3 Auditory Evoked Fields (AEFs)	p. 247
2.4.6.4 Visually Evoked Magnetic Fields (VEFs)	p. 249
2.4.6.5 Language-Related Fields (LRFs)	p. 251
2.4.6.6 Spontaneous Brain Activity in Epilepsy	p. 251
2.4.6.7 Spontaneous Brain Activity in Structural Brain Lesions and Ischemia	p. 255
2.4.6.8 Perspectives	p. 256
References	p. 256
2.5 Fetal Magnetography	p. 268
2.5.1 Fetal Magnetocardiography	p. 268
2.5.1.1 General	p. 268
2.5.1.2 Fetal Cardiac Physiology	p. 268
2.5.1.3 Methodical Approaches	p. 269
2.5.1.4 Standards and International Reference Values	p. 273
2.5.1.5 Monitoring Fetal Cardiac Function: A Brief Comparison of Methods	p. 274
2.5.1.6 Complementary Role in Clinical Diagnosis	p. 274
2.5.1.7 Clinical Research	p. 276
2.5.1.8 Perspectives	p. 277
2.5.2 Fetal Magnetoencephalography	p. 279
2.5.2.1 General Aspects	p. 279
2.5.2.2 Development of Senses	p. 281
2.5.2.3 Applications of fMEG	p. 282
2.5.2.4 Developmental Aspects of Fetal Evoked Responses	p. 283
2.5.2.5 Perspectives	p. 285
References	p. 286
3 Magnetic Resonance	p. 291
3.1 Introduction	p. 293
3.2 Physical Principles and Technology of Magnetic Resonance Imaging	p. 297
3.2.1 Historical Overview	p. 297
3.2.2 Basic Physical Principles of NMR	p. 298
3.2.3 The NMR Signal	p. 301
3.2.4 Nuclear Relaxation	p. 306
3.2.5 Signal-to-Noise Ratio	p. 309
3.2.6 Magnetic Resonance Imaging	p. 311
3.2.7 Selective Excitation	p. 314
3.2.8 Partial Acquisition Techniques	p. 317
3.2.9 Pulse Sequence and Contrast	p. 318
3.2.10 Imaging of Flow	p. 324
3.2.11 Diffusion Imaging	p. 326
3.2.12 MR Spectroscopy	p. 327
3.2.13 System Design Considerations	p. 329
3.2.14 Magnets	p. 331
3.2.15 Shimming	p. 334
3.2.16 Gradient System	p. 335
3.2.17 RF-System	p. 336
3.2.18 Conclusions	p. 339
References	p. 340
3.3 Modern Applications of MRI in Medical Sciences	p. 343
3.3.1 New MRI Techniques for Cardiovascular Imaging	p. 343
3.3.1.1 Introduction	p. 343
3.3.1.2 Cardiovascular Morphology	p. 343
3.3.1.3 Cardiac Function and Flow	p. 344
3.3.1.4 Perfusion	p. 349
3.3.1.5 Delayed-Enhancement Imaging	p. 351
3.3.1.6 Coronary MR Angiography	p. 352
3.3.1.7 Coronary Artery Wall Imaging	p. 357
References	p. 359
3.3.2 Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)	p. 362
3.3.2.1 Physiological and Physical Basis	p. 362
3.3.2.2 Methods for fMRI	p. 363
3.3.2.3 The fMRI Experiment	p. 364
3.3.2.4 Data Analysis	p. 365
3.3.2.5 Current Results in fMRI	p. 36&
3.3.2.6 Perspectives	p. 374
References	p. 374
3.3.3 New MRI Techniques for the Detection of Acute Cerebral Ischemia	p. 378
3.3.3.1 Introduction	p. 378
3.3.3.2 Evolution of DWI Changes in Stroke	p. 379
3.3.3.3 DWI in Clinical Practice	p. 381
3.3.3.4 Improvements and Pulse Sequences for DWI and DTI	p. 383
3.3.3.5 Functional DWI in Brain Mapping	p. 392
3.3.3.6 Conclusion and Future Outlook	p. 393
References	p. 393
3.3.4 Clinical Applications at Ultrahigh Fields	p. 398
3.3.4.1 Potential and Challenges with Ultrahigh Field MRI	p. 398
3.3.4.2 Image Characteristics in Normal Brain	p. 402
3.3.4.3 Applications for Neuropathology	p. 406
3.3.4.4 Conclusion and Outlook	p. 410
References	p. 411
3.3.5 Interventional Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Concepts, Systems, and Applications	p. 416
3.3.5.1 Introduction	p. 416
3.3.5.2 Imaging System Development	p. 417
3.3.5.3 Supplemental Technical Developments	p. 420
3.3.5.4 Specific Applications	p. 423
3.3.5.5 Conclusions and Outlook	p. 433
References	p. 434
3.3.6 New Approaches in Diagnostic and Therapeutic MR Mammography	p. 437
3.3.6.1 Introduction	p. 437
3.3.6.2 Diagnostic MR Mammography	p. 438
3.3.6.3 Current Limits and Disadvantages	p. 441
3.3.6.4 New Approaches to Diagnostic MR Mammography	p. 442
3.3.6.5 Minimally Invasive Procedures: Biopsy and Therapy	p. 445
3.3.6.6 MRI-Guided Percutaneous Minimally Invasive Therapy of Breast Lesions	p. 447
3.3.5.7 New Perspectives	p. 449
3.3.6.8 Conclusion	p. 450
References	p. 451
3.3.7 MR Spectroscopy	p. 456
3.3.7.1 Introduction	p. 456
3.3.7.2 High-Resolution Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy In Vivo	p. 456
3.3.7.3 Metabolic Information and Clinical Application: In-Vivo [superscript 1]H MRS	p. 460
3.3.7.4 Metabolic Information and Clinical Application: In-Vivo [superscript 13]C MRS	p. 469
3.3.7.5 Metabolic Information and Clinical Application: In-Vivo [superscript 19]F MRS	p. 469
3.3.7.6 Metabolic Information and Clinical Application: In-Vivo [superscript 31]P MRS	p. 471
3.3.7.7 Application of MRS in Diagnostics and Clinical Research: Conclusions and Perspectives	p. 472
References	p. 474
4 Magnetic Substances and Externally Applied Fields	p. 477
4.1 Introduction	p. 479
References	p. 480
4.2 Magnetic Monitoring as a Diagnostic Method for Investigating Motility in the Human Digestive System	p. 481
4.2.1 Introduction	p. 481
4.2.2 Conventional Investigation Methods of the Human GI Tract	p. 482
4.2.3 Magnetic Markers	p. 483
4.2.3.1 Inverse Monitoring	p. 484
4.2.3.2 Theoretical Background	p. 484
4.2.3.3 Forward Monitoring	p. 485
4.2.4 Magnetic Monitoring Systems	p. 486
4.2.4.1 Magnetic Monitoring with Three Magnetic Sensors	p. 486
4.2.4.2 Magnetic Marker Monitoring Using Biomagnetic Squid Measurement System	p. 487
4.2.4.3 Magnetic Monitoring with Multiple AMR-Sensors	p. 488
4.2.4.4 Comparison of the Measuring Methods	p. 489
4.2.4.5 Information Content of Magnetic Monitoring Investigations	p. 490
4.2.4.6 Motility Pattern of the GI System	p. 491
4.2.4.7 Absorption Processes Inside the GI Tract	p. 493
4.2.5 Conclusion and Outlook	p. 494
References	p. 496
4.3 Remote-Controlled Drug Delivery in the Gastrointestinal Tract	p. 499
4.3.1 Introduction	p. 499
4.3.2 Physical Principles Used or Proposed for Remote Controlled Release	p. 500
4.3.2.1 Capsules Designed for Drug Release under the Guiding or Withholding Influence of a Magnetic Field	p. 500
4.3.2.2 Capsules Using Mechanical Forces of Magnetic Fields to Open a Container	p. 501
4.3.2.3 Capsule Operation Triggered by an Alternating (AC) Magnetic Field	p. 501
4.3.2.4 Application of Rotating Magnetic Fields	p. 503
4.3.3 Discussion and Outlook	p. 504
4.3.3.1 Capsules already Used for Animal and Human Studies	p. 504
4.3.3.2 Outlook	p. 507
References	p. 508
4.4 Magnetic Stimulation	p. 511
4.4.1 Introduction	p. 511
4.4.2 History	p. 511
4.4.2.1 History of Magnetic Stimulation	p. 511
4.4.2.2 The Beginnings of Magnetic Brain Stimulation	p. 512
4.4.3 Principle of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation	p. 513
4.4.3.1 Vectorial and Localized Magnetic Stimulation: A Computer Simulation Study	p. 513
4.4.3.2 Physiological Principle	p. 516
4.4.3.3 Functional Mapping of the Human Motor Cortex	p. 517
4.4.3.4 Inhibition-Excitation Balance	p. 520
4.4.4 Clinical and Preclinical Application of TMS	p. 521
4.4.4.1 Targeting Method	p. 521
4.4.4.2 Representative Neurosurgical Case	p. 522
4.4.4.3 Cellular-Molecular Level	p. 523
References	p. 525
4.5 Liver Iron Susceptometry	p. 529
4.5.1 Introduction	p. 529
4.5.2 Iron Metabolism and Iron Overload	p. 529
4.5.3 Technical Developments of Biomagnetic Liver Susceptometry	p. 531
4.5.3.1 DC-Field Low-T[subscript C] Squid Biosusceptometer	p. 531
4.5.3.2 AC-Field Squid Biosusceptometer	p. 532
4.5.3.3 Room-Temperature Biosusceptometer	p. 534
4.5.3.4 High-T[subscript C] Biosusceptometer	p. 534
4.5.4 Physical and Biochemical Basics	p. 535
4.5.5 Magnetostatic Principles	p. 537
4.5.6 Calibration and Validation	p. 538
4.5.7 Magnetic Background and Noise Problems	p. 540
4.5.8 Alternative Methods	p. 541
4.5.9 Medical Applications	p. 542
4.5.9.1 Measurement Procedures	p. 542
4.5.9.2 Primary Hemochromatosis	p. 542
4.5.9.3 Iron-Deficiency Anemia	p. 543
4.5.9.4 Secondary Hemochromatosis	p. 543
4.5.9.5 Long-Term Iron Chelation	p. 543
4.5.9.6 Future Applications	p. 544
4.5.10 Summary and Outlook	p. 544
References	p. 545
4.6 Magnetic Hyperthermia and Thermoablation	p. 550
4.6.1 Introduction	p. 550
4.6.2 Physical Principles of Magnetic Particle Heating	p. 551
4.6.2.1 Losses during Magnetization Reversal within the Particles	p. 552
4.6.2.2 Losses Caused by Rotational Motion of Particles	p. 554
4.6.2.3 Thermal Relaxation Effects in Magnetic Nanoparticles	p. 555
4.6.2.4 Eddy Current Effects	p. 558
4.6.3 Physical-Technical Implementation of the Therapy	p. 559
4.6.3.1 Demand of Specific Heating Power	p. 559
4.6.3.2 Parameters of the Alternating Magnetic Field	p. 561
4.6.3.3 Optimization of the Magnetic Material	p. 561
4.6.4 Biomedical Status of Magnetic Particle Hyperthermia	p. 564
4.6.4.1 Studies with Animals and Cell Cultures	p. 564
4.6.4.2 Application to Human Patients	p. 565
References	p. 567
4.7 Magnetic Cell Separation for Research and Clinical Applications	p. 571
4.7.1 Introduction	p. 571
4.7.2 MACS Technology	p. 572
4.7.2.1 The Concept	p. 572
4.7.2.2 Magnetic Separation Strategies	p. 572
4.7.2.3 Magnetic Labeling Strategies and Reagents	p. 574
4.7.2.4 Superparamagnetic MicroBeads	p. 575
4.7.2.5 Column Technology and Research Separators	p. 576
4.7.2.6 CliniMACS Plus Instrument, and Accessories	p. 577
4.7.3 Magnetic Cell Sorting for Clinical Applications	p. 580
4.7.3.1 Stem Cell Enrichment for Graft Engineering in Hematological Disorders	p. 580
4.7.3.2 NK Cells: CD56 and CD3	p. 583
4.7.3.3 T-Cell Subset Graft Engineering Strategies	p. 583
4.7.3.4 Antigen-Specific T Cells: Cytokine Capture System	p. 585
4.7.3.5 Dendritic Cells (DC): CD14-derived DC, BDCA-1, BDCA-4	p. 586
4.7.3.6 Into the Future: Cardiac Regeneration Using CD133[superscript +] Stem Cells	p. 589
References	p. 591
4.8 Magnetic Drug Targeting	p. 596
4.8.1 Background and History of Magnetic Drug Targeting	p. 596
4.8.2 Regional Chemotherapies for Cancer Treatment	p. 598
4.8.3 Current Applications of Magnetic Drug Targeting	p. 599
4.8.3.1 In-Vitro Studies	p. 600
4.8.3.2 In-Vivo Studies	p. 600
4.8.4 Outlook	p. 602
References	p. 602
4.9 New Fields of Application	p. 606
4.9.1 Introduction	p. 606
4.9.2 Magnetic Particle Imaging (MPI)	p. 606
4.9.3 Magnetically Modulated Optical Nanoprobes	p. 608
4.9.4 Magnetic Guidance	p. 608
4.9.4.1 Small Particles Guided by Extracorporeally Generated Field Gradients	p. 609
4.9.4.2 Field Gradients Generated by Magnetic Implants	p. 610
4.9.4.3 Magnetic Devices Moved by Alternating or Rotating Magnetic Fields	p. 610
References	p. 611
5 Conclusions and Perspectives	p. 613
Index	p. 617

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