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Summary
Summary
The United States produces over seventy percent of all its electricity from fossil fuels and nearly fifty percent from coal alone. Worldwide, forty-one percent of all electricity is generated from coal, making it the single most important fuel source for electricity generation, followed by natural gas. This means that an essential part of any portfolio for emissions reduction will be technology to capture carbon dioxide and permanently sequester it in suitable geologic formations. While many nations have incentivized development of CCS technology, large regulatory and legal barriers exist that have yet to be addressed. This book identifies current law and regulation that applies to geologic sequestration in the U.S., the regulatory needs to ensure that geologic sequestration is carried out safely and effectively, and barriers that current law and regulation present to timely deployment of CCS. The authors find the three most significant barriers to be: an ill-defined process to access pore space in deep saline formations; a piecemeal, procedural, and static permitting system; and the lack of a clear, responsible plan to address long-term liability associated with sequestered CO2. The book provides legislative options to remove these barriers and address the regulatory needs, and makes recommendations on the best options to encourage safe, effective deployment of CCS. The authors operationalize their recommendations in legislative language, which is of particular use to policymakers faced with the challenge of addressing climate change and energy.
Author Notes
M. Granger Morgan is Professor and Head of the Department of Engineering and Public Policy at Carnegie Mellon University. His research addresses problems in science, technology, and public policy in which the technical details and uncertainty are of central importance. He is a member of the National Academy of Sciences, and a Fellow of the AAAS, the IEEE, and the SRA. He holds degrees from Harvard (BS), Cornell (MS), and UCSD (PhD, Applied Physics).
Sean T. McCoy is Adjunct Assistant Professor at the Department of Engineering and Public Policy at Carnegie Mellon University, and Energy Analyst at the International Energy Agency. The focus of Sean's research is the interaction between regulation, energy technologies, and energy resources. Sean holds a PhD in Engineering and Public Policy from Carnegie Mellon University and a BASc from the University of Waterloo in Environmental Engineering (Chemical Specialization).
Table of Contents
List of Figures and Tables | p. xv |
List of Authors | p. xix |
Preface | p. xxiii |
Acknowledgments | p. xxv |
Abbreviations | p. xxvii |
1 The Importance of Carbon Capture and Geologic Sequestration in a Carbon Constrained World | p. 1 |
1.1 Why does the World still need Fossil Fuel? | p. 5 |
1.2 Carbon Capture with Geologic Sequestration (CCS) | p. 7 |
1.3 Underground Injection Today | p. 9 |
1.4 The Boundaries and Life Cycle of a CCS Project | p. 9 |
1.5 The Reason for this Book | p. 11 |
2 Technology for Carbon Capture and Geologic Sequestration | p. 12 |
2.1 Overview of CO 2 Capture Technology and its Applications | p. 13 |
2.2 Capture of CO 2 from Electric Power Generation | p. 15 |
2.3 Capturing CO 2 from Industrial Processes | p. 23 |
2.4 Capturing CO 2 Directly From the Air | p. 26 |
2.5 Overview of CO 2 Transport Options | p. 28 |
2.6 Overview of Geologic Sequestration and the Sequestration Project Life Cycle | p. 31 |
2.7 Practical Experience with GS Technology | p. 42 |
2.8 Enhanced Oil Recovery and its Relationship to Geologic Sequestration | p. 42 |
3 Siting CO 2 Pipelines for Geologic Sequestration | p. 47 |
3.1 Existing Federal Regulation of CO 2 Pipelines | p. 48 |
3.2 Existing Regulation of Siting, Rate Setting, Safety, and Access to CO 2 Pipelines in Selected States (Texas, New Mexico, Ohio, and Pennsylvania) | p. 56 |
3.3 Adequacy of Existing Laws | p. 59 |
3.4 Options for Creating a CO 2 Pipeline Regulatory Framework | p. 60 |
3.5 Recommendations for Regulating CO 2 Pipelines | p. 61 |
4 Permitting Geologic Sequestration Sites | p. 63 |
4.1 The US EPA Underground Injection Control Program | p. 64 |
4.2 The Role of the States | p. 71 |
4.3 Community Engagement During the Permitting Process | p. 77 |
4.4 Recommendations for Permitting GS Sites | p. 78 |
5 Learning from and Adapting to Changes in Geologic Sequestration Technology | p. 80 |
5.1 Performance-based Regulation | p. 81 |
5.2 Examples of Performance-based Regulation | p. 82 |
5.3 Adaptive Regulation | p. 84 |
5.4 Examples of Adaptive Regulation | p. 85 |
5.5 Assessment of Current Rules for Geologic Sequestration | p. 87 |
5.6 Recommendations on Learning and Adaptation | p. 88 |
6 Access to Pore Space for Geologic Sequestration | p. 91 |
6.1 Competing Uses of the Subsurface | p. 92 |
6.2 Who Owns Pore Space in the US? | p. 95 |
6.3 Does the Use of Pore Space for GS Require Compensation Under the Law? | p. 96 |
6.4 Alternative Models for the Acquisition of the Right to Use Pore Space for Fluid Injection | p. 98 |
6.5 Potential Legal Frameworks for Managing GS Access to Pore Space | p. 104 |
6.6 A Federally Coordinated Framework would be Optimal | p. 105 |
6.7 Authority to Permit Geologic CO 2 Sequestration on Federal Lands | p. 117 |
6.8 Recommendations on Access to Pore Space | p. 119 |
7 Liability and the Management of Long-term Stewardship | p. 126 |
7.1 Liability Across a Project's Life Cycle | p. 126 |
7.2 Designing a Strategy to Manage Long-term Stewardship | p. 127 |
7.3 Types of Liability that may arise During Long-term Stewardship | p. 128 |
7.4 A Hybrid Approach to Liability During Long-term Stewardship | p. 130 |
7.5 First-mover Projects | p. 132 |
7.6 Recommendations on How to Address Liability and Long-term Stewardship | p. 133 |
8 Greenhouse Gas Accounting for CCS | p. 140 |
8.1 Framing the Issues in Accounting | p. 143 |
8.2 Current Rules Relevant to GHG Accounting for CCS | p. 145 |
8.3 Technical Considerations for Monitoring and Measurement of Surface Leakage at GS Sites | p. 147 |
8.4 Compensating for Surface Leakage | p. 154 |
8.5 CCS Accounting under Various Climate or Energy Policies | p. 156 |
8.6 Recommendations on GHG Accounting for CCS | p. 162 |
9 Making CCS a Reality | p. 166 |
9.1 Opportunities to Mitigate Financial Risks | p. 167 |
9.2 Fostering Technology Innovation | p. 179 |
9.3 Summary | p. 181 |
10 Conclusions and Recommendations | p. 182 |
Appendix: A Draft Bill for U.S. Congress | p. 189 |
Notes | p. 242 |
Index | p. 271 |