Mechanics of offshore pipelines

Offshore oil and gas production was conducted throughout the entire 20th century, but the industry's modern importance and vibrancy did not start until the early 1970s, when the North Sea became a major producer. Since then, the expansion of the offshore oil industry has been continuous and rapid.
Pipelines, and more generally long tubular structures, are major oil and gas industry tools used in exploration, drilling, production, and transmission. Installing and operating tubular structures in deep waters places unique demands on them. Technical challenges within the field have spawned significant research and development efforts in a broad range of areas.
Volume I addresses problems of buckling and collapse of long inelastic cylinders under various loads encountered in the offshore arena. Several of the solutions are also directly applicable to land pipelines. The approach of Mechanics of Offshore Pipelines is problem oriented. The background of each problem and scenario are first outlined and each discussion finishes with design recommendations.

Preface	p. xi
1 Introduction	p. 1
1.1 Offshore Pipeline Design Considerations	p. 6
1.2 Buckling and Collapse of Structures	p. 8
1.3 Buckle Propagation in Offshore Pipelines	p. 12
2 Offshore Facilities and Pipeline Installation Methods	p. 15
2.1 Offshore Platforms and Related Production Systems	p. 16
2.1.1 Fixed Platforms	p. 16
2.1.2 Floating and Tethered Platforms	p. 22
2.2 Offshore Pipeline Installation Methods	p. 34
2.2.1 S-Lay	p. 34
2.2.2 J-Lay	p. 38
2.2.3 Reeling	p. 43
2.2.4 Towing	p. 48
2.3 The Mardi Gras Project	p. 52
3 Pipe and Tube Manufacturing Processes	p. 59
3.1 Steelmaking for Line Pipe	p. 60
3.1.1 Strengthening of Steel	p. 60
3.2 Plate Production	p. 63
3.2.1 Steelmaking	p. 64
3.2.2 Vertical Continuous Casting of Slabs	p. 64
3.2.3 Plate Rolling	p. 65
3.3 Seamless Pipe	p. 70
3.3.1 Continuous Casting of Round Billets	p. 70
3.3.2 Plug Mill	p. 72
3.3.3 Mandrel Mill	p. 74
3.3.4 Pilger Mill	p. 76
3.4 Electric Resistance Welded Pipe	p. 78
3.5 Spiral Weld Pipe	p. 80
3.6 UOE Pipe Manufacture	p. 81
3.7 JCO Forming	p. 86
4 Buckling and Collapse Under External Pressure	p. 89
4.1 Elastic Buckling	p. 89
4.1.1 Imperfect Pipe	p. 92
4.2 Plastic Buckling	p. 94
4.2.1 Lateral Pressure	p. 96
4.2.2 Hydrostatic Pressure	p. 97
4.2.3 Pressure with Zero Axial Strain	p. 97
4.3 Nonlinear Formulation	p. 99
4.3.1 Kinematics	p. 100
4.3.2 Constitutive Behavior	p. 100
4.3.3 Principle of Virtual Work	p. 101
4.3.4 Examples	p. 102
4.4 Factors Affecting Pipe Collapse	p. 104
4.4.1 Collapse Pressure Experiments	p. 104
4.4.2 Prediction of Collapse Pressures	p. 106
4.4.3 Effect of Initial Ovality	p. 108
4.4.4 Type of Pressure Loading	p. 111
4.4.5 Wall Thickness Variations	p. 112
4.4.6 Effect of Material Stress-Strain Response	p. 114
4.4.7 Residual Stresses	p. 115
4.4.8 Anisotropic Yielding	p. 115
4.4.9 An Approximate Estimate of Collapse Pressure	p. 117
4.5 Representative Seamless Pipe Imperfections	p. 118
4.5.1 Imperfection Scanning System	p. 118
4.5.2 Data Reduction	p. 119
4.5.3 Four Examples	p. 121
4.6 Conclusions and Design Recommendations	p. 128
5 Collapse of UOE Pipe Under External Pressure	p. 131
5.1 Collapse Pressure of UOE Pipe	p. 131
5.2 Prediction of Collapse Pressure of UOE Pipe	p. 136
5.3 Improvement of Compressive Properties by Heat Treatment of the Pipe	p. 137
5.4 One-Dimensional Model of UOE Pipe Forming	p. 140
5.5 Two-Dimensional Models of UOE/UOC	p. 144
5.5.1 UOE/UOC Forming Steps	p. 144
5.5.2 Numerical Simulation	p. 147
5.5.3 An Example of UOE Forming	p. 148
5.5.4 Parametric Study-Optimization of UOE/UOC	p. 155
5.6 Conclusions and Recommendations	p. 161
6 Collapse of Dented Pipes Under External Pressure	p. 164
6.1 Dent Characteristics	p. 164
6.2 Denting and Collapse Experiments	p. 165
6.2.1 Indention	p. 165
6.2.2 Collapse Experiments	p. 168
6.3 Modeling of Denting and Collapse	p. 170
6.3.1 Prediction of Collapse Pressure of Dented Tubes	p. 171
6.4 Universal Collapse Resistance Curves for Dented Pipes	p. 175
6.4.1 Localization of Collapse Under External Pressure	p. 175
6.4.2 The Universal Collapse Resistance Curve	p. 177
6.5 Conclusions and Recommendations	p. 180
7 Buckling and Collapse Under Combined External Pressure and Tension	p. 181
7.1 Elastic Buckling	p. 183
7.2 Plastic Buckling	p. 185
7.3 Nonlinear Formulation	p. 186
7.3.1 Examples	p. 187
7.4 Collapse Under External Pressure and Tension	p. 188
7.4.1 Experimental Results and Numerical Predictions	p. 190
7.5 Additional Parametric Study	p. 192
7.6 Conclusions and Recommendations	p. 194
8 Inelastic Response, Buckling and Collapse Under Pure Bending	p. 196
8.1 Features of Inelastic Bending	p. 196
8.2 Bending Experiments	p. 198
8.3 Formulation	p. 208
8.3.1 Kinematics	p. 209
8.3.2 Constitutive Behavior	p. 210
8.3.3 Principle of Virtual Work	p. 210
8.3.4 Bifurcation Buckling Under Pure Bending	p. 211
8.4 Predictions	p. 214
8.5 Parametric Study	p. 219
8.6 Summary and Recommendations	p. 223
9 Buckling and Collapse Under Combined Bending and External Pressure	p. 225
9.1 Features of Inelastic Bending of Tubes Under External Pressure	p. 225
9.2 Combined Bending-External Pressure Experiments	p. 226
9.2.1 Test Facilities	p. 227
9.2.2 Experimental Results	p. 229
9.3 Formulation	p. 233
9.3.1 Principle of Virtual Work	p. 234
9.3.2 Bifurcation Buckling Under Combined Bending and External Pressure	p. 235
9.4 Predictions	p. 235
9.5 Factors That Affect Collapse	p. 238
9.5.1 Effect of Hardening Rule	p. 238
9.5.2 Bifurcation Buckling	p. 239
9.5.3 Effect of Residual Stresses	p. 240
9.5.4 Asymmetric Modes of Collapse	p. 243
9.5.5 Effect of Wall Thickness Variations	p. 248
9.5.6 Effect of Material Stress-Strain Response	p. 249
9.5.7 Effect of Anisotropic Yielding	p. 250
9.6 Collapse of UOE Pipe Bent Under External Pressure	p. 251
9.6.1 Experiments	p. 252
9.6.2 Analysis	p. 256
9.7 Conclusions and Recommendations	p. 257
10 Inelastic Response Under Combined Bending and Tension	p. 260
10.1 Features of Tube Bending Under Tension	p. 261
10.2 Combined Bending-Tension Experiments	p. 261
10.2.1 Test Facility	p. 261
10.2.2 Experimental Procedure and Results	p. 264
10.3.2 Formulation	p. 270
10.4 Predictions	p. 274
10.4.1 Simulation of Experiments	p. 274
10.5 Parametric Study	p. 275
10.5.1 Effect of Loading Path	p. 275
10.5.2 Transverse Force on Axis of Pipe	p. 276
10.5.3 Effect of Curvature	p. 276
10.5.4 Effect of Yield Anisotropy and Residual Stresses	p. 277
10.6 Conclusions and Recommendations	p. 278
11 Plastic Buckling and Collapse Under Axial Compression	p. 280
11.1 Features of Axial Plastic Buckling	p. 281
11.2 Axial Buckling Experiments	p. 283
11.2.1 Experimental Setup	p. 283
11.2.2 Experimental Results	p. 285
11.3 Onset of Axisymmetric Wrinkling	p. 293
11.3.1 Formulation	p. 293
11.3.2 Predictions	p. 296
11.4 Evolution of Wrinkling	p. 297
11.4.1 Kinematics	p. 297
11.4.2 Principle of Virtual Work	p. 299
11.4.3 Constitutive Equations	p. 299
11.4.4 Axisymmetric Solution	p. 299
11.4.5 Localization of Axisymmetric Wrinkling	p. 304
11.4.6 Bifurcation into Non-Axisymmetric Buckling Modes	p. 305
11.5 Non-Axisymmetric Buckling and Collapse	p. 308
11.5.1 Results	p. 309
11.6 Parametric Study	p. 314
11.7 Summary and Recommendations	p. 316
12 Combined Internal Pressure and Axial Compression	p. 319
12.1 Combined Axial Compression-Internal Pressure Experiments	p. 319
12.1.1 Experimental Set-Up	p. 320
12.1.2 Experimental Results	p. 321
12.2 Onset of Axisymmetric Wrinkling	p. 327
12.2.1 Formulation	p. 327
12.2.2 Predictions	p. 328
12.3 Evolution of Wrinkling	p. 329
12.4 Parametric Study	p. 332
12.5 Summary and Recommendations	p. 334
13 Elements of Plasticity Theory	p. 336
13.1 Preliminaries	p. 336
13.1.1 Aspects of Uniaxial Behavior	p. 336
13.1.2 Discontinuous Yielding	p. 339
13.1.3 Multiaxial Behavior	p. 342
13.1.4 Yield Criteria	p. 342
13.2 Incremental Plasticity	p. 345
13.2.1 The Flow Rule	p. 345
13.2.2 J[subscript 2] Flow Theory with Isotropic Hardening	p. 346
13.3 The Deformation Theory of Plasticity	p. 349
13.3.1 The J[subscript 2] Deformation Theory	p. 349
13.3.2 Incremental J[subscript 2] Deformation Theory	p. 350
13.3.3 Anisotropic Deformation Theory	p. 351
13.4 Nonlinear Kinematic Hardening	p. 352
13.4.1 The Drucker-Palgen Model [13.19]	p. 353
13.4.2 The Dafalias-Popov Two-Surface Model	p. 355
13.4.3 The Tseng-Lee Two-Surface Model	p. 358
Appendix A Mechanical Testing	p. 361
A.1 Tensile and Compressive Material Stress-Strain Responses	p. 361
A.1.1 Tension Tests	p. 361
A.1.2 Compression Tests	p. 363
A.2 Toughness	p. 365
A.2.1 Charpy V-Notch Impact Test (CVN)	p. 365
A.2.2 Drop-Weight Tear Test (DWTT)	p. 368
A.3 Hardness Tests	p. 368
A.4 Residual Stresses	p. 369
Appendix B Plastic Anisotropy in Tubes	p. 371
B.1 Anisotropy Tests	p. 371
B.1.1 Lateral Pressure Test	p. 372
B.1.2 Hydrostatic Pressure Test	p. 373
B.1.3 Torsion Test	p. 374
Appendix C The Ramberg-Osgood Stress-Strain Fit	p. 376
Appendix D Sanders' Circular Cylindrical Shell Equations	p. 378
Appendix E Stress-Strain Fitting for the Dafalias-Popov Model	p. 380
Appendix F Stress-Strain Fitting for the Tseng-Lee Model	p. 383
Appendix G Glossary and Nomenclature	p. 386
Appendix H Units and Conversions	p. 393
Index	p. 395

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