Space physics : an introduction to plasmas and particles in the heliosphere and magnetospheres

Space is a large natural plasma laboratory offering a wealth of phenomena which range from the simple to the highly complex and non-linear. This book begins with an introduction to basic principles such as single-particle motion, magnetohydrodynamics and plasma waves. It incorporates these concepts into an analysis of complex phenomena including the sun and solar activity, shocks, interplanetary space and magnetospheres, and finally the interaction between these entities in solar-terrestrial relationships. In all these subfields of space research, special attention is paid to energetic particles. The book concludes with a brief chapter on instrumentation. In this third edition, numerous examples have been added to illustrate the basic concepts and aid the reader in applying such concepts to real world physics. In addition, recent observations (ACE, TRACE, Wind) have been included. The chapter on solar-terrestrial relationships has been expanded to introduce the current research topic of Space Weather.

1 Introduction	p. 1
1.1 Neutral Gases and Plasmas	p. 1
1.2 Plasmas in Space	p. 2
1.3 A Brief History of Space Research	p. 5
Exercises and Problems	p. 8
2 Charged Particles in Electromagnetic Fields	p. 9
2.1 Electromagnetic Fields	p. 9
2.1.1 Maxwell's Equations in Vacuum	p. 10
2.1.2 Transformation of Field Equations	p. 11
2.1.3 Generalized Ohm's Law	p. 12
2.1.4 Energy Equation of the Electromagnetic Field	p. 12
2.2 Particle Motion in Electromagnetic Fields	p. 14
2.2.1 Lorentz Force and Gyration	p. 14
2.3 Drifts of Particles in Electromagnetic Fields	p. 17
2.3.1 The Concept of the Guiding Center	p. 17
2.3.2 Crossed Magnetic and Electric Fields: Ex B Drift	p. 18
2.3.3 Magnetic and Gravitational Fields	p. 19
2.3.4 Inhomogeneous Magnetic Fields	p. 20
2.3.5 Curvature Drift	p. 20
2.3.6 Drifts Combined with Changes in Particle Energy	p. 21
2.3.7 Drift Currents in Plasmas	p. 22
2.4 Adiabatic Invariants	p. 22
2.4.1 First Adiabatic Invariant: The Magnetic Moment	p. 23
2.4.2 Magnetic Mirrors and Bottles	p. 25
2.4.3 Second Adiabatic Invariant: Longitudinal Invariant	p. 27
2.4.4 Third Adiabatic Invariant: Flux Invariant	p. 29
2.5 Summary	p. 29
Exercises and Problems	p. 29
3 Magnetohydrodynamics	p. 31
3.1 From Hydrodynamics to Magnetohydrodynamics	p. 32
3.1.1 Partial and Convective Derivatives	p. 32
3.1.2 Equation of Motion or Momentum Balance	p. 33
3.1.3 Equation of Continuity	p. 38
3.1.4 Equation of State	p. 39
3.2 Basic Equations of MHD	p. 40
3.2.1 Two-Fluid Description	p. 41
3.3 Magnetohydrostatics	p. 42
3.3.1 Magnetic Pressure	p. 43
3.3.2 Magnetic Tension	p. 44
3.4 Magnetohydrokinematics	p. 47
3.4.1 Frozen-in Magnetic Fields	p. 47
3.4.2 Deformation and Dissipation of Fields	p. 49
3.5 Reconnection	p. 54
3.6 The Magnetohydrodynamic Dynamo	p. 56
3.7 Debye Shielding	p. 59
3.8 Summary	p. 62
Exercises and Problems	p. 63
4 Plasma Waves	p. 65
4.1 What is a Wave?	p. 66
4.2 Magnetohydrodynamic Waves	p. 67
4.2.1 Linearization of the Equations: Perturbation Theory.	p. 67
4.2.2 Alfven Waves	p. 69
4.2.3 Magneto-Sonic Waves	p. 70
4.3 Electrostatic Waves in Non-Magnetic Plasmas	p. 73
4.3.1 Plasma Oscillations	p. 73
4.3.2 Electron Plasma Waves (Langmuir Waves)	p. 75
4.3.3 Ion-Acoustic Waves (Ion Waves)	p. 76
4.4 Electrostatic Waves in Magnetized Plasmas	p. 77
4.4.1 Electron Oscillations Perpendicular to B (Upper Hybrid Frequency)	p. 77
4.4.2 Electrostatic Ion Waves Perpendicular to B (Ion Cyclotron Waves)	p. 78
4.4.3 pLower Hybrid Frequency	p. 78
4.5 Electromagnetic Waves in Non-Magnetized Plasmas	p. 79
4.6 Electromagnetic Waves in Magnetized Plasmas	p. 81
4.6.1 Electromagnetic Waves Perpendicular to BQ	p. 81
4.6.2 Waves Parallel to the Magnetic Field: Whistler (R-Waves) and L-Waves	p. 83
4.7 Summary	p. 85
Exercises and Problems	p. 85
5 Kinetic Theory	p. 87
5.1 The Distribution Function	p. 87
5.1.1 Phase Space and Distribution Function	p. 87
5.1.2 Maxwell's Velocity Distribution	p. 88
5.1.3 Other Distributions	p. 89
5.1.4 Distribution Function and Measured Quantities	p. 92
5.2 Equations of Kinetic Theory	p. 92
5.2.1 The Boltzmann Equation	p. 92
5.2.2 The Vlasov Equation	p. 93
5.2.3 The Fokker-Planck Equation	p. 95
5.3 Collisions	p. 97
5.3.1 Collisions Between Neutrals	p. 97
5.3.2 Collisions Between Charged Particles	p. 99
5.4 Summary	p. 101
Exercises and Problems	p. 101
6 Sun and Solar Wind: Plasmas in the Heliosphere	p. 103
6.1 The Sun	p. 103
6.1.1 Nuclear Fusion	p. 105
6.1.2 Structure of the Sun	p. 106
6.1.3 The Solar Atmosphere	p. 107
6.1.4 The Coronal Magnetic Field	p. 108
6.2 The Solar Wind	p. 109
6.2.1 Properties	p. 110
6.2.2 Solar Wind Models	p. Ill
6.2.3 Coronal Heating and Solar Wind Acceleration	p. 115
6.3 The Interplanetary Magnetic Field (IMF)	p. 116
6.3.1 Spiral Structure	p. 116
6.3.2 Sector Structure	p. 118
6.3.3 The Ballerina Model	p. 118
6.3.4 Corotating Interaction Regions	p. 120
6.4 Plasma Waves in Interplanetary Space	p. 121
6.4.1 Power-Density Spectrum	p. 122
6.4.2 Waves or Turbulence?	p. 123
6.5 The Three-Dimensional Heliosphere	p. 125
6.6 The Active Sun	p. 127
6.6.1 The Solar Cycle	p. 127
6.6.2 A Simple Model of the Solar Cycle	p. 128
6.6.3 The Heliosphere During the Solar Cycle	p. 130
6.7 Flares and Coronal Mass Ejections	p. 131
6.7.1 Electromagnetic Radiation	p. 131
6.7.2 Classes of Flares	p. 135
6.7.3 Coronal Mass Ejections	p. 136
6.7.4 Coronal Mass Ejections, Flares, and Coronal Shocks	p. 138
6.7.5 Models of Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs)	p. 139
6.7.6 Models of Flares	p. 141
6.7.7 Magnetic Clouds: CMEs in Interplanetary Space	p. 143
6.7.8 Interplanetary Shocks	p. 144
6.8 Shock	p. Waves
6.8.1 Information, Dissipation, and Non-Linearity	p. 147
6.8.2 The Shock's Rest Frame	p. 148
6.8.3 Collisionless Shock Waves	p. 149
6.8.4 Shock Conservation Laws	p. 150
6.8.5 Jump Conditions and Discontinuities	p. 152
6.8.6 Shock Geometry	p. 153
6.8.7 Fast and Slow Shocks	p. 154
6.8.8 The Coplanarity Theorem	p. 156
6.8.9 The Shock Normal Direction	p. 156
6.9 Summary	p. 157
Exercises and Problems	p. 157
7 Energetic Particles in the Heliosphere	p. 159
7.1 Particle Populations in the Heliosphere	p. 159
7.2 Solar Energetic Particles and Classes of Flares	p. 162
7.3 Interplanetary Transport - Theoretical Background	p. 166
7.3.1 Spatial Diffusion	p. 166
7.3.2 Pitch Angle Diffusion	p. 173
7.3.3 Diffusion in Momentum Space	p. 175
7.3.4 Wave-Particle Interactions	p. 175
7.3.5 Electromagnetic Waves	p. 178
7.3.6 Transport Equations	p. 179
7.4 Interplanetary Propagation - Observations	p. 182
7.4.1 Fits with a Transport Equation	p. 182
7.4.2 Analysis of Magnetic Field Fluctuations	p. 183
7.4.3 Comparison Between Both Approaches	p. 184
7.5 Particle Acceleration at Shocks - Theory	p. 186
7.5.1 Shock Drift Acceleration (SDA)	p. 186
7.5.2 Diffusive Shock Acceleration	p. 189
7.5.3 Diffusive Shock Acceleration and Self-Generated Turbulence	p. 192
7.5.4 Stochastic Acceleration	p. 194
7.5.5 The Shock as a Non-Linear System	p. 195
7.5.6 Summary Shock Acceleration	p. 196
7.6 Particles at Shocks in Interplanetary Space	p. 197
7.6.1 Low-Energy Particles (Tens of keV) at Traveling Shocks	p. 198
7.6.2 High-Energetic Particles (MeVs) at Traveling Shocks	p. 201
7.6.3 Particles at Planetary Bow Shocks	p. 203
7.7 Galactic Cosmic Rays (GCRs)	p. 205
7.7.1 Variations	p. 205
7.7.2 Modulation Models	p. 211
7.8 Summary	p. 215
Exercises and Problems	p. 215
8 The Terrestrial Magnetosphere	p. 217
8.1 The Geomagnetic Field	p. 218
8.1.1 Description of the Geomagnetic Field	p. 218
8.1.2 Variability of the Internal Field	p. 221
8.1.3 The Terrestrial Dynamo	p. 224
8.2 Topology of the Magnetosphere	p. 226
8.2.1 Overview	p. 226
8.2.2 The Magnetopause	p. 227
8.2.3 Polar Cusps	p. 230
8.2.4 The Tail and the Polar Caps	p. 230
8.2.5 Magnetosheath and Bow Shock	p. 232
8.3 Plasmas and Currents in the Magnetosphere	p. 234
8.3.1 The Atmosphere	p. 234
8.3.2 The Ionosphere	p. 236
8.3.3 Magnetosphere-Ionosphere Coupling	p. 240
8.3.4 The Plasmasphere	p. 243
8.3.5 The Geosphere	p. 245
8.3.6 The Outer Magnetosphere	p. 246
8.4 The Open Magnetosphere	p. 246
8.4.1 Convection of Plasma Into the Magnetosphere	p. 247
8.4.2 Flux Transfer Events	p. 250
8.4.3 Release of Accumulated Matter: Substorms	p. 251
8.5 Geomagnetic Disturbances	p. 253
8.5.1 Daily Variations	p. 253
8.5.2 Geomagnetic Indices	p. 253
8.5.3 Geomagnetic Pulsations	p. 254
8.5.4 Geomagnetic Storms	p. 255
8.5.5 Geomagnetic Activity on Longer Time Scales	p. 256
8.6 Aurorae	p. 259
8.6.1 Historical Excursion	p. 260
8.6.2 Beginning of the Scientific Analysis	p. 262
8.6.3 Modern Interpretation	p. 265
8.6.4 Electron Acceleration	p. 265
8.6.5 Excitation of the Atmosphere	p. 267
8.6.6 Shape and Local Time	p. 268
8.7 Energetic Particles in the Magnetosphere	p. 269
8.7.1 The Radiation Belts	p. 269
8.7.2 Galactic Cosmic Rays - St0rmer Orbits	p. 279
8.7.3 Solar Energetic Particles - Polar Cap Absorption	p. 281
8.8 Magnetospheric Modeling	p. 282
8.9 Summary	p. 283
Exercises and Problems	p. 284
9 Planetary Magnetospheres	p. 285
9.1 The Planets	p. 285
9.2 Planets with a Magnetic Field	p. 286
9.2.1 Mercury	p. 287
9.2.2 Jupiter	p. 288
9.2.3 Saturn	p. 290
9.2.4 Uranus	p. 291
9.2.5 Neptune	p. 293
9.3 Planets Without a Magnetic Field	p. 294
9.4 Comparison of Planetary Magnetospheres	p. 295
9.4.1 Structures of Planetary Magnetospheres	p. 295
9.4.2 Sizes	p. 296
9.4.3 Plasma Sources	p. 297
9.4.4 Upstream of the Bow Shock: The Foreshocks	p. 298
9.4.5 Radiation Belts p. 299
9.5 Summary	p. 301
Exercises and Problems	p. 302
10 Solar-Terrestrial Relationships	p. 303
10.1 Solar-Terrestrial Relationships: Overview	p. 303
10.2 Responses of the Upper Atmosphere to Solar Variability	p. 305
10.2.1 Polar Cap Absorptions and Ozone	p. 307
10.2.2 Thermospheric Circulation	p. 309
10.3 The Solar Cycle, Sector Boundaries, Droughts, and Thunderstorms	p. 311
10.3.1 Solar Activity, Climate, and Culture	p. 312
10.3.2 Sun and Weather	p. 314
10.3.3 Cosmic Rays, Clouds, and Solar Cycle Length	p. 318
10.4 The Technical Environment and Solar Activity	p. 318
11 Instrumentation	p. 321
11.1 Field Instruments	p. 321
11.1.1 The Magnetic Field	p. 322
11.1.2 Electric Field Measurements	p. 324
11.1.3 Wave Measurements	p. 325
11.2 Plasma Instruments	p. 326
11.2.1 Instruments for Dense Plasmas	p. 326
11.2.2 Instruments for Rarefied Plasmas	p. 328
11.2.3 Energetic Particle Instruments	p. 329
11.3 Supplementary Ground-Based Observations	p. 331
Appendix	p. 333
A.1 List of Symbols	p. 333
A.2 Useful Equations in the SI and cgs System	p. 335
A.3 Useful Relations	p. 337
A.3.1 Vector Calculus	p. 337
A.3.2 Cylindrical Coordinates	p. 338
A.3.3 Spherical Coordinates	p. 338
A.4 Useful Numbers	p. 339
A.4.1 Fundamental Constants	p. 339
A.4.2 Numbers in Plasmas	p. 339
References	p. 341
Index	p. 357

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