Landforming : an environmental approach to hillside development, mine reclamation and watershed restoration

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The first hands-on instruction guide to landform grading and revegetation

Landform grading provides a cost-effective, attractive, and environmentally compatible way to construct slopes and other landforms that are stable and that blend in with the natural surroundings. Landform grading design and construction technology have advanced rapidly during the past decade, and this book explains the technique, its uses, its various applications, and its significant advantages.

Landforming: An Environmental Approach to Hillside Development, Mine Reclamation and Watershed Restoration , presents the first comprehensive and practical guidebook to the innovative techniques of landform grading and revegetation.

Citing numerous practical applications in such areas as hillside housing developments, mass grading operations, surface mining and watershed reclamation projects, the authors--one an internationally recognized instructor and the other an engineer with over thirty years of practical experience in the field--have teamed up to provide valuable information on:

The aesthetic and ecological benefits of landform grading and revegetation Analyses that demonstrate the stability of landform designed slopes Real-world design/construction procedures Construction in both upland slope areas and in stream corridors Analytical procedures and design aids to assist implementation Well documented and comprehensive case studies of actual projects

Written in straightforward language and liberally illustrated with informative photographs and schematic drawings, the text should prove of value to practicing professionals in such diverse fields as land planning, civil and geotechnical engineering, landscape architecture, and geology as well as to personnel in a variety of local, state and federal regulatory agencies and environmental interest groups.

HORST J. SCHOR is the originator of the Landforming and Revegetation Concept and is Principal of H.J. Schor Consulting. He has developed landform grading designs that have been implemented in a variety of hillside grading and mining reclamation projects for a diverse list of clients. He has been a guest lecturer at The University of Wisconsin-Madison, The University of Dresden, Germany and The University of California at Irvine.

DONALD H. GRAY, PHD, is Professor Emeritus of Civil and Environmental Engineering at The University of Michigan. In addition to speaking and teaching internationally, he has co-authored three books on subjects related geotechnical engineering and biotechnical slope protection.

Author Notes

Donald H. Gray is Professor Emeritus of Civil and Environmental Engineering at the University of Michigan.

Preface	p. xiii
1 Introduction to Landform Grading and Revegetation	p. 1
1.1 Form and Function in Nature	p. 1
1.2 Human Impact on Landforms	p. 3
1.3 Historical Development	p. 5
1.4 Objectives and Challenges	p. 10
1.5 References	p. 12
2 Surficial Erosion and Mass Wasting of Slopes	p. 13
2.1 Introduction	p. 13
2.2 Definitions	p. 13
2.2.1 Surficial Erosion	p. 13
2.2.2 Mass Wasting	p. 14
2.2.3 Salient Characteristics and Differences	p. 14
2.3 Nature of Surficial Erosion	p. 15
2.3.1 Agents and Types of Erosion	p. 15
2.3.2 Mechanics of Erosion	p. 16
2.4 Principal Determinants of Erosion	p. 16
2.4.1 Rainfall Erosion	p. 16
2.4.2 Wind Erosion	p. 18
2.5 Types of Water Erosion	p. 18
2.6 Soil Loss Predictions	p. 21
2.6.1 Historical Development	p. 21
2.6.2 Applications of the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE)	p. 22
2.6.3 Limitations of USLE	p. 24
2.7 Erosion Control Principles	p. 25
2.8 Nature of Mass Wasting	p. 26
2.8.1 Types of Slope Movement	p. 26
2.8.2 Causes of Slope Failure	p. 27
2.8.3 Indicators of Slope Instability	p. 28
2.9 Slope Stability Predictions	p. 28
2.9.1 Approaches to Analysis	p. 28
2.9.2 Limit-Equilibrium Analysis	p. 29
2.9.3 Shear-Strength Parameters	p. 31
2.9.4 Translational Slope Failures	p. 32
2.10 Control of Mass Wasting	p. 35
2.11 Slope-Stability and Channel-Erosion Thresholds	p. 36
2.11.1 Significance	p. 36
2.11.2 Approaches	p. 36
2.11.3 Slope-Stability Threshold	p. 36
2.11.4 Threshold of Erosion by Saturation Overland Flow	p. 48
2.11.5 Stability Fields and Threshold Boundaries	p. 51
2.12 Summary	p. 52
2.13 References	p. 54
3 Influence of Vegetation on Hillside Stability	p. 57
3.1 Introduction	p. 57
3.2 Influence on Surficial Erosion	p. 58
3.2.1 Stabilizing Functions	p. 58
3.2.2 Vegetation Cover Factor	p. 58
3.2.3 Recommended Vegetation	p. 59
3.3 Influence on Mass Stability	p. 60
3.3.1 Hydromechanical Effects	p. 60
3.3.2 Beneficial Effects	p. 60
3.3.3 Detrimental Effects	p. 62
3.4 Root Morphology and Strength	p. 63
3.4.1 Introduction	p. 63
3.4.2 Depth and Distribution of Root Systems	p. 63
3.4.3 Root Strength	p. 67
3.5 Root and Fiber Soil Reinforcement	p. 69
3.5.1 Force-Equilibrium Models	p. 69
3.5.2 In Situ Direct-Shear Tests	p. 69
3.5.3 Stability Analyses	p. 70
3.6 Guidelines for Maximizing Benefits of Vegetation	p. 73
3.6.1 General Observations	p. 73
3.6.2 Selection Strategies	p. 73
3.6.3 Placement Strategies	p. 74
3.6.4 Grading and Site Preparation	p. 75
3.6.5 Optimizing Compaction	p. 78
3.6.6 Management Strategies	p. 85
3.7 Summary	p. 88
3.8 References	p. 89
4 Influence of Topography on Slope Stability and Hydrology	p. 93
4.1 Introduction	p. 93
4.2 Modeling Approaches and Assumptions	p. 94
4.3 Conceptual Modeling	p. 95
4.3.1 General	p. 95
4.3.2 Mass Stability	p. 96
4.3.3 Surficial Erosion	p. 97
4.4 Physical-Mathematical Models	p. 98
4.4.1 General	p. 98
4.4.2 Mass Stability	p. 99
4.4.3 Surficial Erosion	p. 102
4.5 Laboratory and Field Tests	p. 107
4.5.1 General	p. 107
4.5.2 Mass Stability	p. 107
4.5.3 Surficial Erosion	p. 107
4.5.4 Equilibrium Profiles of Natural Slopes	p. 110
4.5.5 Summary	p. 112
4.6 Role of Drainage Networks and Drainage Densities	p. 113
4.6.1 Drainage Density and Zero-Order Watershed	p. 113
4.7 References	p. 117
5 Geomorphic Evolution of Slopes	p. 119
5.1 Introduction	p. 119
5.2 Role of Geologic Processes	p. 120
5.3 Geomorphology	p. 121
5.4 Slope Attributes and Characteristics	p. 121
5.4.1 Classification of Slopes	p. 121
5.4.2 Slope Profiles and Elements	p. 122
5.4.3 Slope Processes	p. 123
5.5 Approaches to Slope Evolution Prediction	p. 124
5.5.1 Traditional approach	p. 124
5.5.2 Morphometric approach	p. 125
5.5.3 Process approach	p. 125
5.5.4 Empirical approach	p. 125
5.6 Anthropogenic Slopes and Landforms	p. 125
5.7 Slope Evolution and Long-Term Stability	p. 126
5.7.1 Evolution and Morphometry of Spoil Mounds	p. 126
5.7.2 Evolution and Morphometry of Natural Slopes	p. 127
5.7.3 Effect of Climate on Hillslope Form	p. 132
5.8 Digital Terrain Models	p. 134
5.8.1 Salient Characteristics of Digital Terrain Models	p. 134
5.8.2 Example of a Linked, Digital Terrain Model-SIBERIA	p. 136
5.8.3 Applications of Digital Terrain Modelling	p. 139
5.8.4 Design of Stable Landforms	p. 140
5.9 References	p. 143
6 Hillside Grading Fundamentals	p. 146
6.1 Introduction	p. 146
6.2 Purpose of Grading	p. 146
6.3 Grading Considerations	p. 147
6.3.1 Major Stakeholders	p. 147
6.3.2 Selection of Grading Equipment	p. 148
6.3.3 Importance of Subsurface Conditions	p. 151
6.4 Elements of Hillside Grading	p. 153
6.4.1 Preparatory Operations	p. 153
6.4.1.1 Clearing and grubbing	p. 153
6.4.1.2 Preapplication of water	p. 153
6.4.1.3 Removal of deleterious materials	p. 154
6.4.2 Special Conditions and Precautions	p. 155
6.4.2.1 Groundwater removal	p. 155
6.4.2.2 Surface drainage control	p. 157
6.4.2.3 Unstable slopes and landslides	p. 158
6.4.2.4 Faults	p. 161
6.4.2.5 Volume changes	p. 161
6.4.2.6 Hard, well-indurated rock	p. 162
6.5 Cuts and Fills	p. 163
6.5.1 Cuts and Cut Slopes	p. 166
6.5.1.1 Cut construction	p. 166
6.5.1.2 Selective grading	p. 166
6.5.1.3 Cut slope construction and remediation	p. 166
6.5.2 Fills	p. 171
6.5.2.1 Fill slope construction	p. 171
6.5.2.2 Deep fills	p. 171
6.5.2.3 Fill slope remediation	p. 171
6.6 Erosion Control During Grading	p. 173
6.7 Economics of Grading	p. 173
6.8 References	p. 178
7 Principles of Landform Grading	p. 179
7.1 Introduction	p. 179
7.2 The Traditional Method	p. 179
7.2.1 Conventional Slopes and Their Design Elements	p. 179
7.2.1.1 Slope plan and profile shape	p. 179
7.2.1.2 Drainage devices	p. 179
7.2.2 Building Pads	p. 180
7.2.3 Landscaping	p. 180
7.2.4 Historical Use and Observations	p. 181
7.3 The Improved Method	p. 184
7.3.1 Contour Slopes and Their Design Elements	p. 184
7.3.1.1 Slope plan and profile shape	p. 184
7.3.1.2 Drainage devices	p. 184
7.3.2 Building Pads	p. 184
7.3.3 Landscaping	p. 185
7.3.4 Historical Use and General Observations	p. 185
7.4 The Environmentally Responsive New Technique	p. 186
7.4.1 Landform Slopes and Their Design Elements	p. 186
7.4.1.1 Slope plan and profile shape	p. 186
7.4.1.2 Drainage devices	p. 186
7.4.2 Plateaus and Building Pads	p. 188
7.4.3 Revegetation Landscaping	p. 189
7.5 Repair and Rejuvenation Techniques for Either Man-Made or Damaged Natural Landscapes	p. 192
7.5.1 General Observations	p. 192
7.5.2 Direct Slope Replication	p. 192
7.5.3 Complete or Partial In Situ Landform Restoration	p. 193
7.5.4 Creation of New Physiographic Landforms	p. 196
7.5.5 Slope-Form Restoration via Landform Grading	p. 196
7.5.6 Landform Restoration after Mass Grading and Fining	p. 198
7.6 Surface Mining Reclamation	p. 199
7.6.1 Impact of Surface Mining	p. 199
7.6.2 Importance of Replicating Original Topography and Hydrology	p. 202
7.6.3 Elements of Critical Concern	p. 203
7.6.4 Design Alternatives	p. 204
7.6.4.1 The shape of the footprint	p. 204
7.6.4.2 The orientation of the footprint	p. 206
7.6.4.3 Slope profile in cross section	p. 206
7.6.4.4 The slope in frontal and plan view	p. 207
7.6.4.5 Revegetation and reforestation	p. 209
7.7 Summary and Conclusions	p. 210
7.8 References	p. 210
8 Essential Design Elements for Slope Forms and Landforms	p. 211
8.1 Introduction	p. 211
8.2 Natural Landscape Elements	p. 211
8.2.1 Origin of Natural Slope Forms	p. 211
8.2.2 Natural Drainage Forms	p. 213
8.2.3 Natural Vegetation Patterns	p. 213
8.3 Basic Slope Forms-"The Architecture of Slopes"	p. 214
8.3.1 General Observations	p. 214
8.3.2 Ridges and Swales-Perpendicular to the Slope Crest	p. 214
8.3.3 Ridges and Swales-Diagonally across the Slope Face	p. 215
8.3.4 Ridges and Swales-Curvilinear across the Slope Face	p. 218
8.3.5 Elbow Shapes across the Slope Face	p. 218
8.3.6 Pyramid- and Cone-Shaped Slope-Face Elements	p. 218
8.3.7 Wishbone Configurations	p. 218
8.3.8 Convex Ridges and Concave-Foot Slopes	p. 220
8.3.9 Compound and Composite Shapes	p. 220
8.3.9.1 Degree of roundness or angularity	p. 222
8.3.9.2 Width	p. 223
8.3.9.3 Height	p. 223
8.3.9.4 Proportion	p. 223
8.4 The Rock Element as Part of the Natural Landscape	p. 224
8.5 Reference	p. 224
9 Implementation of the Landform Grading Plan	p. 225
9.1 Requirements for Successful Implementation	p. 225
9.2 Obstacles to Implementation	p. 225
9.3 Implementation Strategies	p. 226
9.3.1 Land Planning and Initial Site Design	p. 226
9.3.2 Meetings with Regulatory Agency	p. 226
9.3.3 Allaying Engineering Concerns	p. 227
9.3.4 Geotechnical Engineering	p. 228
9.3.5 Introduction of Concept to Grading Designers	p. 228
9.4 Planning and Surveying Requirements	p. 229
9.4.1 Planning Requirements	p. 229
9.4.2 Surveying Requirements	p. 229
9.5 The Grading Phase	p. 231
9.5.1 Retraining of Grading Personnel	p. 231
9.5.2 Ground Preparation	p. 233
9.5.3 Slope Construction	p. 233
9.6 Fill Construction and Compaction Control	p. 233
9.7 Construction of Valley or "Daylight" Fills	p. 233
9.8 Slope-Drainage Devices	p. 234
9.8.1 Terrace Drains	p. 234
9.8.2 Down-Drains	p. 235
9.8.3 Interceptor Drains	p. 236
9.8.4 Toe Drains	p. 237
9.8.5 Hardened Drain Limitations	p. 237
9.9 Revegetation	p. 238
9.9.1 Conventional Landscaping vs. Revegetation	p. 238
9.9.2 Landform Revegetation	p. 238
9.10 The Application of Water on the Slope Face through Irrigation	p. 241
9.10.1 High-Pressure Spray Method	p. 241
9.10.2 Low-Pressure Spray Method	p. 241
9.11 Placement of Rocks and Boulders	p. 241
9.12 Cost Considerations and Analyses	p. 245
9.12.1 Land-Planning Costs	p. 245
9.12.2 Design Engineering Costs	p. 245
9.12.3 Surveying Costs	p. 245
9.12.4 Landscape Architect Costs	p. 247
9.12.5 Construction and Grading Costs	p. 247
10 Public and Regulatory Response to Landform Grading	p. 249
10.1 Introduction	p. 249
10.2 The Development Process	p. 249
10.2.1 Overall Governing Agency or Authority	p. 249
10.2.2 The Land-Planner's Perspective	p. 249
10.2.3 The Civil Engineer's Perspective	p. 250
10.2.4 Regulatory Agencies' Perspectives	p. 250
10.2.5 Owners' and Developers' Perspectives	p. 251
10.2.6 Interdisciplinary Team Approaches	p. 251
10.3 Standards and Codes	p. 252
10.3.1 Difficulties with Promulgation	p. 252
10.3.2 "Prescriptive" vs. "Performance" Standards	p. 253
10.4 Project-Approval Benefits of Landform Grading	p. 253
10.5 Agencies that have Adopted or Implemented Landform Grading	p. 254
10.6 Future Applications of Landform Grading	p. 262
10.7 References	p. 264
11 Landforming Projects-Watershed Restoration and Mining Reclamation	p. 265
11.1 Introduction	p. 265
11.2 School Girl's Glen	p. 265
11.2.1 Project Type	p. 265
11.2.2 Project Location	p. 266
11.2.3 Client and Project Owner	p. 266
11.2.4 Site Conditions and Problems	p. 266
11.2.5 Repair and Restoration Goals	p. 267
11.2.6 Treatment Considerations	p. 267
11.2.7 Selected Treatments	p. 269
11.2.8 Performance Evaluation	p. 272
11.2.9 References	p. 274
11.3 Asaayi Lake Northwest Drainage-Landform Restoration	p. 274
11.3.1 Type of Project	p. 274
11.3.2 Location	p. 274
11.3.3 Client	p. 275
11.3.4 Repair and Restoration Goals	p. 275
11.3.5 Site Conditions and Problems	p. 275
11.3.6 Treatment Considerations	p. 276
11.3.7 Selected Treatment	p. 277
11.3.7.1 Initial design concept	p. 278
11.3.7.2 Final design configuration	p. 279
11.3.8 Performance Evaluation	p. 282
11.3.9 Postscript	p. 285
11.3.10 References	p. 285
11.4 Oil Sands Mining Reclamation, Syncrude Canada	p. 286
11.4.1 Project Type	p. 286
11.4.2 Project Location	p. 286
11.4.3 Client	p. 286
11.4.4 Site History	p. 286
11.4.5 Site Conditions and Potential Problems	p. 286
11.4.6 Repair and Restoration Goals	p. 290
11.4.7 Treatment Considerations	p. 290
11.4.8 Selected Demonstrations and Treatments	p. 291
11.4.8.1 Project no. 1-Landform demonstration site no. 1	p. 291
11.4.8.2 Project no. 2-Reconfiguration of an existing tailings dump through landform grading	p. 294
11.4.8.3 Project no. 3-"Delandform grading"	p. 295
11.4.9 Performance Evaluation	p. 297
11.4.10 Postscript	p. 298
12 Landforming Projects-Hillside Developments and Mass-Grading Applications	p. 299
12.1 Introduction	p. 299
12.2 Hollywood Hills Project	p. 299
12.2.1 Type of Project	p. 299
12.2.2 Location	p. 299
12.2.3 Clients	p. 300
12.2.4 Projects History	p. 300
12.2.5 Earthwork Disposal and Placement Considerations	p. 301
12.2.6 Environmental Mitigation Design Considerations	p. 302
12.2.7 Alternative Grading Studies	p. 303
12.2.8 Common Design Characteristics of Disposal Fills	p. 303
12.2.9 Final Design Configurations and Locations	p. 304
12.2.9.1 Fill F	p. 304
12.2.9.2 Fill B	p. 310
12.2.9.3 Fill C	p. 312
12.2.9.4 Fill A	p. 314
12.2.10 Post-Construction Evaluation and Observations	p. 319
12.3 Anaheim Hills, California	p. 322
12.3.1 Type of Project	p. 322
12.3.2 Location	p. 323
12.3.3 Clients	p. 323
12.3.4 Jurisdictional Issues	p. 323
12.3.5 Site Conditions and Development Constraints	p. 323
12.3.6 Initial Development Plan-Community Objections	p. 324
12.3.7 Adopted Plan-Landform Grading Alternative	p. 325
12.3.8 Highlights and Features of Landform Grading Plan	p. 325
12.3.9 Performance Evaluation	p. 327
12.4 Talega, California	p. 332
12.4.1 Type of Project	p. 332
12.4.2 Location	p. 332
12.4.3 Client	p. 332
12.4.4 Jurisdictional Issues	p. 332
12.4.5 Public and Regulatory Agency Responses	p. 333
12.4.5.1 City of San Clemente's response	p. 333
12.4.5.2 The County of Orange's Position	p. 335
12.4.5.3 Final resolution and agreement among stakeholders	p. 335
12.4.6 Highlights and Features of Project	p. 336
12.4.7 Conclusions	p. 339
12.4.6.1 Operational findings	p. 339
12.4.6.2 Economic considerations	p. 339
Appendix	p. 343
Index	p. 347

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