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Summary
Summary
This text is dedicated to the issues surrounding RFIC (radio-frequency integrated circuit) testing. It explains how to perform high-accuracy RF measurements of die and packages in the RF test lab. It defines the essential elements in an RF system, explains where errors can be found in such a system and shows how to mathematically remove them with calibration.
Author Notes
Scott A. Wartenberg holds a Ph.D. and M.S. in Electrical Engineering from the Johns Hopkins University, and a B.S. in Electrical Engineering from the University of Tennessee.
Mr. Wartenberg is a staff engineer at RF Micro Devices and has done RF/microwave work at Agilent Technologies, Westinghouse, Raytheon, and the U.S. Department of Defense. A senior member of the IEEE and a member of the Microwave Theory and Techniques Society. He has published extensively.
050
Table of Contents
Preface | p. xiii |
Reference | p. xiv |
Acknowledgments | p. xv |
1 Introduction | p. 1 |
1.1 Topics Covered in This Book | p. 1 |
1.1.1 Calibration | p. 1 |
1.1.2 Coplanar Probes | p. 2 |
1.1.3 High-Volume Probing | p. 2 |
1.1.4 Test Fixtures | p. 2 |
1.1.5 On-Wafer Characterization | p. 4 |
1.1.6 RF Test Systems | p. 4 |
1.1.7 Package Characterization | p. 4 |
1.2 Components of an RF Test System | p. 4 |
1.2.1 VNA | p. 5 |
1.2.2 LCR Meter | p. 7 |
1.2.3 RF Cables | p. 8 |
1.2.4 Bias Cables | p. 9 |
1.2.5 Bias Tees | p. 10 |
1.3 RF Connectors | p. 11 |
1.3.1 Connector Types | p. 11 |
1.3.2 Making the Connection | p. 11 |
1.3.3 Connector Care | p. 12 |
1.4 RF Connector Adapters | p. 12 |
1.5 The Probe Station | p. 12 |
1.6 Summary | p. 13 |
References | p. 13 |
2 Calibration | p. 15 |
2.1 Test System Errors: Random or Systematic | p. 15 |
2.2 Concept of a Reference Plane | p. 16 |
2.3 Error Models | p. 17 |
2.3.1 Signal Flow Graph | p. 19 |
2.3.2 Error Adapter | p. 21 |
2.4 Calibration Standards | p. 23 |
2.4.1 Calibration Coefficients | p. 24 |
2.4.2 Short | p. 25 |
2.4.3 Open | p. 26 |
2.4.4 Load | p. 28 |
2.4.5 Thru | p. 29 |
2.5 Improving the Standards | p. 31 |
2.5.1 Offset Delay | p. 31 |
2.5.2 Offset Loss | p. 33 |
2.6 Calibration Methods | p. 33 |
2.6.1 SOLT | p. 35 |
2.6.2 SOLR | p. 37 |
2.6.3 TRL | p. 38 |
2.6.4 LRM | p. 41 |
2.6.5 LRRM | p. 42 |
2.7 Verification | p. 43 |
2.7.1 Verification Elements | p. 44 |
2.7.2 Verifying with a Reference or "Golden" Unit | p. 45 |
2.8 Isolation | p. 45 |
2.9 Traceability | p. 47 |
2.10 Repeatability, Reproducibility, and Accuracy | p. 48 |
2.11 Calibration Tips and Tricks | p. 48 |
2.12 Summary | p. 50 |
References | p. 51 |
3 Coplanar Probes | p. 55 |
3.1 Theory of CPW | p. 55 |
3.2 Mechanical Construction | p. 57 |
3.3 Equivalent Circuit | p. 58 |
3.4 Characterizing a Coplanar Probe | p. 60 |
3.5 Using Coplanar Probes | p. 62 |
3.5.1 Planarization | p. 62 |
3.5.2 Alignment | p. 63 |
3.5.3 Skating | p. 64 |
3.5.4 Cleaning | p. 67 |
3.6 Probe Configurations | p. 67 |
3.6.1 Balanced | p. 67 |
3.6.2 Unbalanced | p. 68 |
3.6.3 Differential | p. 69 |
3.6.4 Other Probe Configurations | p. 71 |
3.7 Noncontact Probing | p. 71 |
3.8 Applications | p. 72 |
3.8.1 Millimeter-Wave Probing | p. 72 |
3.8.2 Impedance-Matching, Low-Impedance Probes | p. 73 |
3.9 Coplanar Probe Calibration Standards | p. 74 |
3.9.1 Alumina Calibration Substrate | p. 75 |
3.9.2 On-Wafer Calibration Standards | p. 76 |
3.9.3 Open: In the Air or on Open Pads | p. 77 |
3.9.4 More Design Tips | p. 78 |
3.9.5 Verification | p. 79 |
3.10 Summary | p. 80 |
References | p. 80 |
4 High-Volume Probing | p. 83 |
4.1 High-Volume Test | p. 84 |
4.2 RF Probe Card | p. 84 |
4.2.1 Load Board | p. 85 |
4.2.2 Probe Board | p. 86 |
4.2.3 Contactor | p. 86 |
4.3 Membrane Probe | p. 88 |
4.3.1 Construction | p. 88 |
4.4 Designing Membrane Probes | p. 89 |
4.4.1 Digital and RF Signals | p. 90 |
4.4.2 Grounding | p. 90 |
4.5 Using Membrane Probes | p. 91 |
4.6 Calibration | p. 93 |
4.7 Summary | p. 93 |
References | p. 93 |
5 Test Fixtures | p. 95 |
5.1 The Basic Test Fixture | p. 95 |
5.1.1 Qualities of a Good Test Fixture | p. 97 |
5.1.2 Characterizing the Fixture's Parasitic Effects | p. 97 |
5.1.3 Types of Fixtures: R&D or Manufacturing | p. 98 |
5.1.4 Fixturing for Passive Components | p. 98 |
5.1.5 Fixturing for Active Components | p. 99 |
5.2 RF Transitions | p. 99 |
5.2.1 Coaxial to Microstrip | p. 100 |
5.2.2 CPW to Microstrip | p. 102 |
5.2.3 Rectangular Waveguide to CPW | p. 102 |
5.2.4 Rectangular Waveguide to Microstrip | p. 104 |
5.2.5 Rectangular Waveguide to Coaxial | p. 105 |
5.3 Defining the Reference Planes | p. 105 |
5.4 Two-Tier Calibration | p. 107 |
5.5 Test Fixture Calibration | p. 108 |
5.5.1 Calibration Standards: Coaxial Versus In-Fixture | p. 108 |
5.5.2 Calibration Methods | p. 109 |
5.5.3 Calibration Phase Uncertainty | p. 111 |
5.6 Summary | p. 112 |
References | p. 112 |
6 On-Wafer Characterization | p. 115 |
6.1 Conductive Versus Insulating Substrates | p. 116 |
6.2 Probe Pads and Interconnecting Lines | p. 118 |
6.3 De-embedding the Pads and Interconnects | p. 118 |
6.3.1 Open | p. 119 |
6.3.2 Open and Short | p. 122 |
6.3.3 Open, Short, and Thru | p. 122 |
6.3.4 Two-Port Network with a Thru | p. 123 |
6.3.5 Two Shorts, an Open, and a Thru | p. 124 |
6.3.6 Some Points to Consider When De-embedding | p. 126 |
6.3.7 Should the Transistor Finger Metal Be De-embedded? | p. 128 |
6.3.8 Effect of Pad Parasitics on f[subscript T] | p. 129 |
6.4 De-embedding Pads for Noise | p. 131 |
6.5 Measuring High-Isolation Devices | p. 134 |
6.6 Characterizing Vertical Devices | p. 136 |
6.7 Characterizing Passive Components | p. 138 |
6.8 Millimeter-Wave Characterization | p. 138 |
6.9 Summary | p. 140 |
References | p. 141 |
7 RF Test Systems | p. 145 |
7.1 On-Wafer Noise Testing | p. 145 |
7.1.1 Basic Concepts in Noise | p. 145 |
7.1.2 On-Wafer Noise Sources | p. 147 |
7.1.3 Faraday Shielding | p. 147 |
7.2 High-Power RF Testing | p. 148 |
7.3 Characterizing over Temperature | p. 150 |
7.3.1 Heating the Wafer | p. 152 |
7.3.2 Cryogenic Cooling | p. 152 |
7.4 Summary | p. 154 |
References | p. 154 |
8 Package Characterization | p. 157 |
8.1 Designing a Test Fixture for Package Characterization | p. 158 |
8.1.1 RF Launchers | p. 158 |
8.1.2 Coplanar Probes as RF Launchers | p. 159 |
8.1.3 Test Fixture Body | p. 159 |
8.2 The Carrier | p. 161 |
8.2.1 Designing the Carrier | p. 163 |
8.2.2 Carrier Board Material | p. 164 |
8.3 Attaching the Package to the Carrier | p. 165 |
8.3.1 Bond Wires | p. 165 |
8.3.2 Conductive Adhesives | p. 168 |
8.4 Calibration | p. 171 |
8.4.1 Partitioning by Reference Planes | p. 172 |
8.5 De-embedding the Fixture from the Measurement | p. 174 |
8.5.1 De-embedding by Using a Thru Line | p. 175 |
8.5.2 Time-Domain Analysis | p. 176 |
8.5.3 How to Apply Time-Domain Techniques | p. 180 |
8.6 Procedure for Characterizing a Package | p. 180 |
8.6.1 Characterizing with a Thru | p. 182 |
8.6.2 Characterizing with a Short | p. 183 |
8.6.3 Characterizing with an Open | p. 183 |
8.6.4 Characterizing with a Load | p. 183 |
8.6.5 Characterizing with a PIN Diode | p. 184 |
8.6.6 What to Do with the Unused Package Pins | p. 186 |
8.7 Modeling a Package Mounted to a Carrier | p. 186 |
8.7.1 Ground Inductance | p. 187 |
8.7.2 Ground Paddle | p. 188 |
8.8 Designing the Interconnecting Lines on the Carrier | p. 191 |
8.8.1 CPW or Microstrip | p. 191 |
8.8.2 CPW or CBCPW | p. 192 |
8.9 Quantifying the RF Effect of the Package on the Die | p. 193 |
8.9.1 Effective Relative Dielectric Constant [varepsilon subscript eff] | p. 193 |
8.9.2 Propagation Constant [gamma] and Characteristic Impedance Z[subscript 0] | p. 193 |
8.9.3 Loss Tangent tand | p. 195 |
8.10 Package Styles | p. 196 |
8.10.1 Plastic Surface Mount Packages | p. 196 |
8.10.2 Flip-Chip | p. 196 |
8.10.3 Bumped Chip Carrier | p. 199 |
8.11 Summary | p. 200 |
References | p. 200 |
9 Future Trends | p. 205 |
9.1 The Typical Design Cycle | p. 205 |
9.2 The Separate Worlds of Digital and RF | p. 206 |
9.3 The Goal: The Marriage of Digital and RF into a Single Wireless Product | p. 207 |
9.4 New Substrate Materials | p. 208 |
9.5 The Direction of RF Development | p. 209 |
9.6 The Future of the RF Test | p. 210 |
9.7 Summary | p. 211 |
References | p. 211 |
About the Author | p. 213 |
Index | p. 215 |