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Summary
Summary
Multimedia networking applications and, in particular, the transport of c- pressed video are expected to contribute signi?cantly to the tra?c in the future Internet and wireless networks. For transport over networks, video is typically encoded (i. e. , compressed) to reduce the bandwidth requirements. Even compressed video, however, requires large bandwidths of the order of hundred kbps or Mbps. In addition, compressed video streams typically - hibit highly variable bit rates (VBR) as well as long range dependence (LRD) properties. This, in conjunction with the stringent Quality of Service (QoS) requirements (loss and delay) of video tra?c, makes the transport of video tra?covercommunicationnetworksachallengingproblem. Asaconsequence, in the last decade the networking research community has witnessed an - plosion in research on all aspects of video transport. The characteristics of video tra?c, video tra?c modeling, as well as protocols and mechanisms for the e?cient transport of video streams, have received a great deal of interest among networking researchers and network operators and a plethora of video transport schemes have been developed. For developing and evaluating video transport mechanisms and for - search on video networking in general, it is necessary to have available some characterizationofthevideo. Generally,therearethreedi?erentwaystoch- acterize encoded video for the purpose of networking research: (i)video tra?c model,(ii) video bit stream, and (iii) video tra?c trace.
Table of Contents
1 Introduction | p. 1 |
Part I Digital Video | |
2 Introduction to Digital Video | p. 7 |
2.1 The Beginning of Moving Pictures | p. 7 |
2.2 Digital Picture and Video Representation | p. 8 |
2.3 Video Hierarchy | p. 14 |
3 Video Encoding | p. 17 |
3.1 DCT-Based Video Encoding | p. 17 |
3.1.1 Block Scanning | p. 18 |
3.1.2 Discrete Cosine Transformation | p. 19 |
3.1.3 Quantization | p. 20 |
3.1.4 Zig-Zag Scanning | p. 23 |
3.1.5 Variable Length Coding | p. 24 |
3.2 Inter-frame Coding: Motion Estimation and Compensation | p. 25 |
3.3 Scalable Video Encoding | p. 29 |
3.3.1 Data Partitioning | p. 30 |
3.3.2 Temporal Scalability | p. 30 |
3.3.3 Spatial Scalability | p. 31 |
3.3.4 SNR Scalability | p. 31 |
3.3.5 Object Scalability | p. 32 |
3.3.6 Fine Granular Scalability (FGS) | p. 33 |
3.3.7 Multiple Description Coding (MDC) | p. 35 |
3.4 Wavelet-Based Video Encoding | p. 35 |
3.5 Video Coding Standards | p. 38 |
Part II Video Traces and Statistics | |
4 Metrics and Statistics for Video Traces | p. 45 |
4.1 Video Frame Size | p. 45 |
4.1.1 Autocorrelation | p. 46 |
4.1.2 Variance-Time Test | p. 47 |
4.1.3 R/S Statistic | p. 47 |
4.1.4 Periodogram | p. 48 |
4.1.5 Logscale Diagram | p. 50 |
4.1.6 Multiscale Diagram | p. 50 |
4.2 Video Frame Quality | p. 51 |
4.3 Correlation between Video Frame Sizes and Qualities | p. 54 |
4.4 Additional Metrics for FGS Encodings | p. 55 |
4.5 Additional Metric for MDC Encodings | p. 58 |
5 Video Trace Generation | p. 59 |
5.1 Overview of Video Trace Generation and Evaluation Process | p. 59 |
5.1.1 Video Source VHS | p. 60 |
5.1.2 Video Source DVD | p. 61 |
5.1.3 Video Source YUV Test Sequences | p. 62 |
5.1.4 Video Source Pre-Encoded Video | p. 62 |
5.2 MDC Trace Generation | p. 62 |
5.3 Evaluation of MPEG-4 Encodings | p. 63 |
5.3.1 Single-Layer Encoding | p. 66 |
5.3.2 Temporal Scalable Encoding | p. 67 |
5.3.3 Spatial Scalable Encoding | p. 71 |
5.4 Evaluation of H.264 Encodings | p. 73 |
5.5 Evaluation of MPEG-4 FGS Encodings | p. 75 |
5.6 Evaluation of Wavelet Video Traces | p. 77 |
5.7 Evaluation of Pre-Encoded Content | p. 79 |
5.8 Evaluation of MDC Encodings | p. 80 |
6 Statistical Results from Video Traces | p. 83 |
6.1 Video Trace Statistics for MPEG-4 Encoded Video | p. 83 |
6.1.1 Examples from Silence of the Lambs Single Layer Encodings | p. 83 |
6.1.2 Videos and Encoder Modes for Evaluated MPEG-4 Video Traces | p. 93 |
6.1.3 Single Layer Encoded Video | p. 97 |
6.1.4 Temporal Scalable Encoded Video | p. 100 |
6.1.5 Spatial Scalable Encoded Video | p. 104 |
6.2 Video Trace Statistics for H.264 Video Trace Files | p. 109 |
6.3 Video Trace Statistics for Pre-Encoded Video | p. 118 |
6.4 Video Trace Statistics for Wavelet Encoded Video | p. 125 |
6.4.1 Analysis of Video Traffic | p. 125 |
6.4.2 Analysis of Video Quality | p. 134 |
6.4.3 Correlation Between Frame Sizes and Qualities | p. 140 |
6.4.4 Comparison Between Wavelet and MPEG-4 Encoded Video | p. 141 |
6.5 Video Trace Statistics for MPEG-4 FGS Encoded Video | p. 153 |
6.6 Video Trace Statistics for MDC Encoded Video | p. 165 |
Part III Applications for Video Traces | |
7 IP Overhead Considerations for Video Services | p. 173 |
7.1 Introduction and Motivation | p. 173 |
7.2 Data Plane | p. 175 |
7.2.1 Real Time Protocol (RTP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP) | p. 175 |
7.2.2 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) | p. 176 |
7.2.3 Internet Protocol (IP) | p. 177 |
7.3 Signaling Overhead | p. 177 |
7.3.1 Session Description Protocol (SDP) | p. 178 |
7.3.2 Session Announcement Protocol (SAP) | p. 178 |
7.3.3 Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) | p. 178 |
7.3.4 Real Time Streaming Protocol (RTSP) | p. 179 |
7.3.5 Real Time Control Protocol (RTCP) | p. 179 |
7.4 Header Compression Schemes | p. 180 |
7.5 Short Example for Overhead Calculation | p. 182 |
8 Using Video Traces for Network Simulations | p. 183 |
8.1 Generating Traffic from Traces | p. 183 |
8.1.1 Stream Level Issues | p. 183 |
8.1.2 Frame/Packet Level Issues | p. 188 |
8.2 Simulation Output Data Analysis | p. 191 |
8.2.1 Performance Metrics in Video Trace Simulations | p. 191 |
8.2.2 Estimating Performance Metrics | p. 193 |
9 Incorporating Transmission Errors into Simulations Using Video Traces | p. 195 |
9.1 Video Encoding Wd Decoding | p. 196 |
9.1.1 Single Layer and Temporal Scalable Encoding | p. 196 |
9.1.2 Spatial and SNR Scalable Video | p. 198 |
9.2 Video Quality after Network Transport | p. 200 |
9.2.1 Single Layer and Temporal Scalable Video | p. 203 |
9.2.2 Spatial Scalable Video | p. 205 |
9.2.3 SNR Scalable Video | p. 205 |
9.3 Video Offset Distortion | p. 206 |
9.3.1 Comparison of Rate-Controlled and Non-Rate-Controlled Video Encoding for Single-Layer Video | p. 207 |
9.3.2 Comparison of Rate-Controlled and Non-Rate-Controlled Video Encoding for Scalable Video | p. 211 |
9.4 Perceptual Considerations for Offset Distortions or Qualities | p. 213 |
9.5 Using Video Offset Distortion Traces | p. 215 |
9.5.1 Assessing the Video Quality After Network Transport Using Video Traces | p. 217 |
9.5.2 Available Tools | p. 217 |
9.6 Offset Distortion Influence on Simulation Results | p. 218 |
9.6.1 Single Layer | p. 219 |
9.6.2 Spatial Scalable Video | p. 221 |
9.7 Error-Prone and Lost MDC Descriptors | p. 224 |
10 Tools for Working with Video Traces | p. 229 |
10.1 Using Video Traces with Network Simulators | p. 229 |
10.1.1 NS II | p. 231 |
10.1.2 Omnet++ | p. 232 |
10.1.3 Ptolemy II | p. 233 |
10.2 The VideoMeter Tool for Linux | p. 235 |
10.2.1 VideoMeter Usage | p. 237 |
10.2.2 Freeze File | p. 239 |
10.3 RMSE and PSNR Calculator | p. 240 |
10.4 MPEG-4 Frame Size Parser | p. 242 |
10.5 Offset Distortion Calculators | p. 243 |
10.5.1 Single Layers | p. 243 |
10.5.2 Spatial Scalability | p. 245 |
11 p. 247 | |
List of Abbreviations | p. 249 |
Acknowledgements | p. 253 |
References | p. 255 |
Index | p. 267 |