Cover image for Critical component wear in heavy duty engines
Title:
Critical component wear in heavy duty engines
Personal Author:
Publication Information:
Singapore : J. Wiley & Sons, 2011.
Physical Description:
xix, 424 p. : ill. ; 26 cm.
ISBN:
9780470828823

9780470828830

9780470828847

9780470828854

9781118082966
Abstract:
"Shows engineers how to prevent wear and dramatically increase the lifespan of key componentsThe critical parts of a heavy duty engine are designed for infinite life without mechanical fatigue failure. Yet the life of an engine is in reality determined by wear of the critical parts. Even if an engine is reconditioned at the end of normal wear life, abnormal wear takes place either due to special working conditions or increased loading. Understanding abnormal and normal wear enables the engineer to control the external conditions leading to premature wear, or to design the critical parts that have longer life and hence lower costs. The literature on wear phenomenon related to engines is scattered in numerous periodicals and books. For the first time, the tribology aspects of different critical engine components are written in one book. Lakshminarayanan covers tribology of critical components, namely, the liner, piston, rings, valve, valve train and bearings with methods to identify and quantify wear. Presents real world case studies with suitable mathematical models for earth movers, power generation, and sea going vessels Includes material from researchers at Chevron (USA), Tekniker (Spain), IP Rings (India), Kirloskar Oil Engines Ltd (India) Wear simulations and calculations included in the appendices Instructor presentations slides with book figures available from the companion site "--Provided by publisher

"While these have been well addressed by the engineering community the solutions are scattered in different journals and books. This book brings the solutions together into one volume"-- Provided by publisher.
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Summary

Summary

The critical parts of a heavy duty engine are theoretically designed for infinite life without mechanical fatigue failure. Yet the life of an engine is in reality determined by wear of the critical parts. Even if an engine is designed and built to have normal wear life, abnormal wear takes place either due to special working conditions or increased loading. Understanding abnormal and normal wear enables the engineer to control the external conditions leading to premature wear, or to design the critical parts that have longer wear life and hence lower costs. The literature on wear phenomenon related to engines is scattered in numerous periodicals and books. For the first time, Lakshminarayanan and Nayak bring the tribological aspects of different critical engine components together in one volume, covering key components like the liner, piston, rings, valve, valve train and bearings, with methods to identify and quantify wear. The first book to combine solutions to critical component wear in one volume Presents real world case studies with suitable mathematical models for earth movers, power generators, and sea going vessels Includes material from researchers at Schaeffer Manufacturing (USA), Tekniker (Spain), Fuchs (Germany), BAM (Germany), Kirloskar Oil Engines Ltd (India) and Tarabusi (Spain) Wear simulations and calculations included in the appendices Instructor presentations slides with book figures available from the companion site

Critical Component Wear in Heavy Duty Engines is aimed at postgraduates in automotive engineering, engine design, tribology, combustion and practitioners involved in engine R&D for applications such as commercial vehicles, cars, stationary engines (for generators, pumps, etc.), boats and ships. This book is also a key reference for senior undergraduates looking to move onto advanced study in the above topics, consultants and product mangers in industry, as well as engineers involved in design of furnaces, gas turbines, and rocket combustion.

Companion website for the book: www.wiley.com/go/lakshmi


Author Notes

P.A. Lakshminarayanan is the Head of R&D at Ashok Leyland in India. He has been the team leader or lead designer of about 10 diesel and CNG engines for different applications. He has guided 2 PhDs at IIT Delhi and 4 M.Techs at IIT Madras, and has published 40 papers in ASME, SAE, IMechE, and AVL journals and conferences. Previous appointments include 20 years from Manger to Senior General Manger of R&D at Kirloskar Oil Engines Ltd, over 15 years as a Visiting Lecturer at IIT Madras, and 5 years as a Research Associate to J.C. Dent at Loughborough University of Technology. He is a Fellow of SAE-International. Lakshminarayanan holds a B.Tech, and M.S. and a PhD from IIT Madras.

Nagaaraj S. Nayak is a Professor of Mechanical Engineering based at Sahyadri College of Engg. & Management. Previously, he was a Senior Manager at the R&D department of Kirloskar Oil Engines Ltd for 9 years, and was a Postdoctoral Fellow at University of Wisconsin Madison for 2 years. He has been a team leader for emission upgrades on 3 engines platforms, and performance development of 2 new engine platforms.


Table of Contents

List of Contributors xv
Preface xvii
Acknowledgements xxi
Part I Overturep. 1
1 Wear in the Heavy Duty Enginep. 3
1.1 Introductionp. 3
1.2 Engine Lifep. 3
1.3 Wear in Enginesp. 4
1.3.1 Natural Agingp. 4
1.4 General Wear Modelp. 5
1.5 Wear of Engine Bearingsp. 5
1.6 Wear of Piston Rings and Linersp. 6
1.7 Wear of Valves and Valve Guidesp. 6
1.8 Reduction in Wear Life of Critical Parts Due to Contaminants in Oilp. 6
1.8.1 Oil Analysisp. 7
1.9 Oils for New Generation Engines with Longer Drain Intervalsp. 8
1.9.1 Engine Oil Developments and Trendsp. 8
1.9.2 Shift in Engine Oil Technologyp. 9
1.10 Filtersp. 9
1.10.1 Air Filterp. 9
1.10.2 Oil Filterp. 10
1.10.3 Water Filterp. 10
1.10.4 Fuel Filterp. 10
1.11 Types of Wear of Critical Parts in a Highly Loaded Diesel Enginep. 10
1.11.1 Adhesive Wearp. 10
1.11.2 Abrasive Wearp. 11
1.11.3 Fretting Wearp. 11
1.11.4 Corrosive Wearp. 11
Referencesp. 11
2 Engine Size and Lifep. 13
2.1 Introductionp. 13
2.2 Engine Lifep. 13
2.3 Factors on Which Life is Dependentp. 14
2.4 Friction Force and Powerp. 14
2.4.1 Mechanical Efficiencyp. 14
2.4.2 Frictionp. 15
2.5 Similarity Studiesp. 15
2.5.1 Characteristic Size of an Enginep. 15
2.5.2 Velocityp. 16
2.5.3 Oil Film Thicknessp. 17
2.5.4 Velocity Gradientp. 18
2.5.5 Friction Force or Powerp. 18
2.5.6 Indicated Power and Efficiencyp. 18
2.6 Archard's Law of Wearp. 20
2.7 Wear Life of Enginesp. 20
2.7.1 Wear Lifep. 20
2.7.2 Nondimensional Wear Depth Achieved During Lifetimep. 21
2.8 Summaryp. 23
Appendix 2.A Engine Parameters, Mechanical Efficiency and Lifep. 25
Appendix 2.B Hardness and Fatigue Limits of Different Copper-Lead-Tin (Cu-Pb-Sn) Bearingsp. 26
Appendix 2.C Hardness and Fatigue Limits of Different Aluminium-Tin (Al-Sn) Bearingsp. 28
Referencesp. 29
Part II Valve Train Componentsp. 31
3 Inlet Valve Seat Wear in High bmep Diesel Enginesp. 33
3.1 Introductionp. 33
3.2 Valve Seat Wearp. 34
3.2.1 Design Aspects to Reduce Valve Seat Wear Lifep. 34
3.3 Shear Strain and Wear due to Relative Displacementp. 35
3.4 Wear Modelp. 35
3.4.1 Wear Ratep. 36
3.5 Finite Element Analysisp. 37
3.6 Experiments, Results and Discussionsp. 38
3.6.1 Valve and Seat Insert of Existing Designp. 39
3.6.2 Improved Valve and Seat Insertp. 39
3.7 Summaryp. 45
3.8 Design Rule for Inlet Valve Seat Wear in High bmep Enginesp. 45
Referencesp. 45
4 Wear of the Cam Follower and Rocker Toep. 47
4.1 Introductionp. 47
4.2 Wear of Cam Follower Surfacesp. 48
4.2.1 Wear Mechanism of the Cam Followerp. 48
4.3 Typical Modes of Wearp. 50
4.4 Experiments on Cam Follower Wearp. 51
4.4.1 Follower Measurementp. 51
4.5 Dynamics of the Valve Train System of the Pushrod Typep. 52
4.5.1 Elastohydrodynamic and Transition of Boundary Lubricationp. 52
4.5.2 Cam and Follower Dynamicsp. 53
4.6 Wear Modelp. 55
4.6.1 Wear Coefficientp. 55
4.6.2 Valve Train Dynamics and Stress on the Followerp. 55
4.6.3 Wear Depthp. 61
4.7 Parametric Studyp. 64
4.7.1 Engine Speedp. 64
4.7.2 Oil Film Thicknessp. 64
4.8 Wear of the Cast Iron Rocker Toep. 64
4.9 Summaryp. 66
Referencesp. 66
Part III Liner, Piston And Piston Ringsp. 69
5 Liner Wear: Wear of Roughness Peaks in Sparse Contactp. 71
5.1 Introductionp. 71
5.2 Surface Texture of Liners and Ringsp. 72
5.2.1 Surface Finishp. 72
5.2.2 Honing of Linersp. 72
5.2.3 Surface Finish Parametersp. 72
5.2.4 Bearing Area Curvep. 74
5.2.5 Representation of Bearing Area Curve of Normally Honed Surface or Surfaces with Peaked Roughnessp. 75
5.3 Wear of Liner Surfacesp. 76
5.3.1 Asperitiesp. 76
5.3.2 Radius of the Asperity in the Transverse Directionp. 76
5.3.3 Radius in the Longitudinal Directionp. 77
5.3.4 Sparse Contactp. 77
5.3.5 Contact Pressuresp. 79
5.3.6 Frictionp. 79
5.3.7 Approachp. 80
5.3.8 Detachment of Asperitiesp. 80
5.4 Wear Modelp. 81
5.4.1 Normally Honed Liner with Peaked Roughnessp. 81
5.4.2 Normal Surface Roughnessp. 81
5.4.3 Fatigue Loading of Asperitiesp. 81
5.4.4 Wear Ratep. 82
5.4.5 Plateau Honed and Other Liners not Normally Honedp. 83
5.5 Liner Wear Model for Wear of Roughness Peaks in Sparse Contactp. 85
5.5.1 Parametric Studiesp. 86
5.5.2 Comparison with Archard's Modelp. 88
5.6 Discussions on Wear of Liner Roughness Peaks due to Sparse Contactp. 89
5.7 Summaryp. 92
Appendix 5.A Sample Calculation of the Wear of a Rough Plateau Honed Linerp. 93
Referencesp. 93
6 Generalized Boundary Conditions for Designing Diesel Pistonsp. 95
6.1 Introductionp. 95
6.2 Temperature Distribution and Form of the Pistonp. 96
6.2.1 Top Landp. 96
6.2.2 Skirtp. 96
6.3 Experimental Mapping of Temperature Field in the Pistonp. 97
6.4 Heat Transfer in Pistonsp. 98
6.4.1 Metal Slabp. 98
6.5 Calculation of Piston Shapep. 98
6.5.1 Popular Methods Used Before Finite Element Analysisp. 99
6.5.2 Calculation by Finite Element Methodp. 101
6.5.3 Experimental Validationp. 103
6.6 Summaryp. 108
Referencesp. 109
7 Bore Polishing Wear in Diesel Engine Cylindersp. 111
7.1 Introductionp. 111
7.2 Wear Phenomenon for Liner Surfacesp. 112
7.2.1 Bore Polishingp. 112
7.3 Bore Polishing Mechanismp. 113
7.3.1 Carbon Deposit Build Up on the Piston Top Landp. 113
7.3.2 Quality of Fuel and Oilp. 113
7.3.3 Piston Growth by Finite Element Methodp. 113
7.3.4 Piston Secondary Movementp. 114
7.3.5 Simulation Programp. 115
7.4 Wear Modelp. 115
7.4.1 Contact Pressuresp. 115
7.4.2 Wear Ratep. 116
7.5 Calculation Methodology and Study of Bore Polishing Wearp. 116
7.5.1 Finite Element Analysisp. 116
7.5.2 Simulationp. 117
7.6 Case Study on Bore Polishing Wear in Diesel Engine Cylindersp. 118
7.6.1 Visual Observationsp. 118
7.6.2 Liner Measurementsp. 119
7.6.3 Results of Finite Element Analysisp. 119
7.6.4 Piston Motionp. 121
7.6.5 Wear Profilep. 123
7.6.6 Engine Oil Consumptionp. 125
7.6.7 Methods Used to Reduce Liner Wearp. 125
7.7 Summaryp. 127
Referencesp. 127
8 Abrasive Wear of Piston Grooves in Highly Loaded Diesel Enginesp. 129
8.1 Introductionp. 129
8.2 Wear Phenomenon in Piston Groovesp. 130
8.2.1 Abrasive Wearp. 130
8.2.2 Wear Mechanismp. 130
8.3 Wear Modelp. 132
8.3.1 Real Contact Pressurep. 132
8.3.2 Approachp. 132
8.3.3 Wear Ratep. 132
8.4 Experimental Validationp. 134
8.4.1 Validation of the Modelp. 134
8.4.2 Wear Measurementp. 135
8.5 Estimation of Wear Using Sarkar's Modelp. 137
8.5.1 Parametric Studyp. 138
8.6 Summaryp. 139
Referencesp. 140
9 Abrasive Wear of Liners and Piston Ringsp. 141
9.1 Introductionp. 141
9.2 Wear of Liner and Ring Surfacesp. 141
9.3 Design Parametersp. 143
9.3.1 Piston and Rings Assemblyp. 143
9.3.2 Abrasive Wearp. 143
9.3.3 Sources of Abrasivesp. 144
9.4 Study of Abrasive Wear on Off-highway Enginesp. 144
9.4.1 Abrasive Wear of Ringsp. 144
9.4.2 Abrasive Wear of Piston Pin and Linersp. 144
9.4.3 Accelerated Abrasive Wear Test on an Engine to Simulate Operation in the Fieldp. 146
9.5 Winnowing Effectp. 149
9.6 Scanning Electron Microscopy of Abrasive Wearp. 150
9.7 Critical Dosage of Sand and Life of Piston-Ring-Liner Assemblyp. 150
9.7.1 Simulation of Engine Lifep. 151
9.8 Summaryp. 152
Referencesp. 153
10 Corrosive Wearp. 155
10.1 Introductionp. 155
10.2 Operating Parametersp. 155
10.2.1 Corrosive Wearp. 155
10.3 Corrosive Wear Study on Off-road Application Enginesp. 156
10.3.1 Accelerated Corrosive Wear Testp. 156
10.4 Wear Related to Coolants in an Enginep. 161
10.4.1 Under-cooling of Liners by Designp. 161
10.4.2 Coolant Related Wearp. 161
10.5 Summaryp. 165
Referencesp. 165
11 Tribological Tests to Simulate Wear on Piston Ringsp. 167
11.1 Introductionp. 167
11.2 Friction and Wear Testsp. 168
11.2.1 Testing Friction and Wear of the Tribo-System Piston Ring and Cylinder Liner Outside of Enginesp. 168
11.3 Test Procedures Assigned to the High Frequency, Linear Oscillating Test Machinep. 170
11.4 Load, Friction and Wear Testsp. 172
11.4.1 EP Testp. 172
11.4.2 Scuffing Testp. 172
11.4.3 Reagents and Materialsp. 172
11.5 Test Resultsp. 175
11.5.1 Selection of Coatings for Piston Ringsp. 175
11.5.2 Scuffing Tribological Testp. 178
11.5.3 Hot Endurance Testp. 179
11.6 Selection of Lubricantsp. 184
11.7 High Performance Bio-lubricants and Tribo-reactive Materials for Clean Automotive Applicationsp. 185
11.7.1 Synthetic Estersp. 185
11.7.2 Polyalkyleneglycolsp. 185
11.8 Tribo-Active Materialsp. 190
11.8.1 Thematic 'Piston Rings'p. 190
11.9 EP Tribological Testsp. 192
11.9.1 Piston Ring Cylinder Liner Simulationp. 192
Acknowledgementsp. 194
Referencesp. 194
Part IV Engine Bearingsp. 197
12 Friction and Wear in Engine Bearingsp. 199
12.1 Introductionp. 199
12.2 Engine Bearing Materialsp. 202
12.2.1 Babbitt or White Metalp. 202
12.2.2 Copper-Lead Alloysp. 203
12.2.3 Aluminium-based Materialsp. 204
12.3 Functions of Engine Bearing Layersp. 205
12.4 Types of Overlays/Coatings in Engine Bearingsp. 206
12.4.1 Lead-based Overlaysp. 208
12.4.2 Tin-based Overlaysp. 208
12.4.3 Sputter Bearing Overlaysp. 208
12.4.4 Polymer-based Overlaysp. 208
12.5 Coatings for Engine Bearingsp. 209
12.6 Relevance of Lubrication Regimes in the Study of Bearing Wearp. 210
12.6.1 Boundary Lubricationp. 212
12.6.2 Mixed Film Lubricationp. 215
12.6.3 Fluid Film Lubricationp. 216
12.7 Theoretical Friction and Wear in Bearingsp. 217
12.7.1 Frictionp. 217
12.8 Wearp. 218
12.9 Mechanisms of Wearp. 219
12.9.1 Adhesive Wearp. 220
12.9.2 Abrasive Wearp. 223
12.9.3 Erosive Wearp. 230
12.10 Requirements of Engine Bearing Materialsp. 234
12.11 Characterization Tests for Wear Behaviour of Engine Bearingsp. 238
12.11.1 Fatigue Strengthp. 239
12.11.2 Pin-on-disk Testp. 239
12.11.3 Scratch Test for Bond Strengthp. 241
12.12 Summaryp. 251
Referencesp. 252
Part V Lubricating Oils For Modern Enginesp. 253
13 Heavy Duty Diesel Engine Oils, Emission Strategies and their Effect on Engine Oilsp. 255
13.1 Introductionp. 255
13.2 What Drives the Changes in Diesel Engine Oil Specifications?p. 256
13.2.1 Role of the Governmentp. 256
13.2.2 OEMs' Rolep. 257
13.2.3 The Consumer's Rolep. 258
13.3 Engine Oil Requirementsp. 258
13.3.1 Overview and What an Engine Oil Must Dop. 258
13.4 Components of Engine Oil Performancep. 265
13.4.1 Viscosityp. 265
13.4.2 Protection against Wear, Deposits and Oil Deteriorationp. 268
13.5 How Engine Oil Performance Standards are Developedp. 268
13.5.1 Phase 1: Category Request and Evaluation (API, 2011a, pp. 36, 37)p. 269
13.5.2 Phase 2: Category Development (API, 2011a, pp. 41, 42)p. 271
13.5.3 Phase 3: Category Implementation (API, 2011a, p. 45)p. 273
13.5.4 API Licensing Processp. 275
13.6 API Service Classificationsp. 276
13.7 ACEA Specificationsp. 276
13.7.1 Current E Sequencesp. 278
13.8 OEM Specificationsp. 279
13.9 Why Some API Service Classifications Become Obsoletep. 279
13.10 Engine Oil Compositionp. 280
13.10.1 Base Oilsp. 280
13.10.2 Refining Processes Used to Produce Lubricating Oil Base Stocksp. 281
13.10.3 Synthetic Base Oilsp. 285
13.10.4 Synthetic Blendsp. 286
13.10.5 API Base Oil Categoriesp. 286
13.11 Specific Engine Oil Additive Chemistryp. 290
13.11.1 Detergent-Dispersant Additivesp. 290
13.11.2 Anti-Wear Additivesp. 294
13.11.3 Friction Modifiersp. 295
13.11.4 Rust and Corrosion Inhibitorsp. 296
13.11.5 Oxidation Inhibitors (Antioxidants)p. 296
13.11.6 Viscosity Index Improversp. 298
13.11.7 Pour Point Depressantsp. 300
13.11.8 Foam Inhibitorsp. 301
13.12 Maintaining and Changing Engine Oilsp. 302
13.12.1 Oil Change Intervalsp. 303
13.12.2 Used Engine Oil Analysisp. 303
13.13 Diesel Engine Oil Trendsp. 306
13.14 Engine Design Technologies and Strategies Used to Control Emissionsp. 306
13.14.1 High Pressure Common Rail (HPCR) Fuel Systemp. 309
13.14.2 Combustion Optimizationp. 310
13.14.3 Advanced Turbochargingp. 312
13.14.4 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR)p. 313
13.14.5 Advanced Combustion Emissions Reduction Technologyp. 314
13.14.6 Crankcase Ventilationp. 315
13.14.7 Exhaust After-Treatmentp. 315
13.14.8 On-Board Diagnostics (OBD)p. 324
13.15 Impact of Emission Strategies on Engine Oilsp. 324
13.15.1 Impact of Cooled EGR on Engine Oilp. 325
13.15.2 Effects of Post-Injection on Engine Oilsp. 327
13.16 How Have Engine Oils Changed to Cope with the Demands of Low Emissions?p. 328
13.17 Most Prevalent API Specifications Found In Usep. 329
13.17.1 API CH-4p. 329
13.17.2 API CI-4p. 330
13.17.3 API CI-4 Plusp. 331
13.17.4 API CJ-4p. 333
13.18 Paradigm Shift in Engine Oil Technologyp. 336
13.18.1 Backward Compatibility and Engine Testsp. 337
13.18.2 New Engine Sequence Testsp. 338
13.18.3 Previous Engine Oil Sequence Testsp. 343
13.18.4 Differences Between CJ-4 and Previous Categories and Benefits of Using CJ-4 Engine Oilsp. 347
13.19 Future Engine Oil Developmentsp. 348
13.20 Summaryp. 352
Referencesp. 353
Part VI Fuel Injection Equipmentp. 355
14 Wear of Fuel Injection Equipmentp. 357
14.1 Introductionp. 357
14.2 Wear due to Diesel Fuel Qualityp. 357
14.2.1 Lubricity of Mineral Diesel Fuelp. 357
14.2.2 Oxygen Content of Biodieselp. 361
14.3 Wear due to Abrasive Dust in Fuelp. 361
14.3.1 Wear of Injector Nozzle due to Heat and Dustp. 361
14.3.2 Fuel Filtersp. 364
14.4 Wear due to Water in Fuelp. 365
14.4.1 Corrosive Wear due to Water Ingressp. 365
14.4.2 Use of Emulsified Water for Reducing Nitric Oxides in Large Enginesp. 365
14.4.3 Microbiological Contamination of Fuel Systemsp. 366
14.4.4 Water Separatorsp. 367
14.5 Summaryp. 367
Referencesp. 367
Part VII Heavy Fuel Enginesp. 369
15 Wear with Heavy Fuel Oil Operationp. 371
15.1 Introductionp. 371
15.2 Fuel Treatment: Filtration and Homogenizationp. 373
15.3 Water and Chlorinep. 374
15.3.1 Fuel Injection Equipmentp. 374
15.4 Viscosity, Carbon Residue and Dustp. 374
15.4.1 Fuel Injection Equipmentp. 374
15.5 Deposit Build Up on Top Land and Anti-polishing Ring for Reducing the Wear of Liner, Rings and Pistonp. 375
15.6 High Sulfur in Fuelp. 377
15.6.1 Formation of Sulfuric Acidp. 377
15.6.2 Mechanism of Corrosive Attack by Sulfuric Acidp. 377
15.6.3 Control of Corrosion by Basicity and Oil Consumptionp. 378
15.6.4 Control of Sulfur Corrosion by Maintaining Cooling Water Temperature Highp. 379
15.7 Low Sulfur in Fuelp. 380
15.7.1 Lubricityp. 380
15.7.2 Lack of Formation of Oil Pockets on the Liner Borep. 381
15.7.3 Sudden Severe Wear of Liner and Ringsp. 382
15.8 Catalyst Finesp. 383
15.9 High Temperature Corrosionp. 383
15.9.1 Turbochargerp. 385
15.9.2 Exhaust Valvesp. 385
15.10 Wear Specific to Four-stroke HFO Enginesp. 388
15.10.1 Wear of Bearingsp. 388
15.10.2 Inlet Valvep. 391
15.10.3 Corrosive Wear of Valve Tipsp. 391
15.11 New Engines Compliant to Maritime Emission Standardsp. 391
15.11.1 Steps to Satisfy Emission Standardsp. 391
15.12 Wear Life of an HFO Enginep. 393
15.13 Summaryp. 393
Referencesp. 394
Part VIII Filtersp. 397
16 Air and Oil Filtration and Its Impact on Oil Life and Engine Wear Lifep. 399
16.1 Introductionp. 399
16.2 Mechanisms of Filtrationp. 400
16.3 Classification of Filtrationp. 400
16.3.1 Classification by Filter Mediap. 401
16.3.2 Classification by Direction of Flowp. 402
16.3.3 Classification by Filter Sizep. 402
16.4 Filter Ratingp. 403
16.4.1 Absolute Ratingp. 403
16.4.2 Nominal Ratingp. 403
16.4.3 Mean Filter Ratingp. 403
16.4.4 b Ratiop. 403
16.4.5 Efficiencyp. 404
16.5 Filter Selectionp. 404
16.6 Introduction to Different Filters in the Enginep. 405
16.6.1 Air Filtersp. 405
16.6.2 Cleaning Air Filters and Impact on Wear Lifep. 409
16.7 Oil Filters and Impact on Oil and Engine Lifep. 409
16.7.1 Oil Performance and Lifep. 410
16.7.2 Oil Stressp. 411
16.7.3 Application of the Concept of Oil Stressp. 413
16.7.4 Advances in Oil Filter Technologyp. 413
16.8 Engine Wearp. 413
16.8.1 Method to Predict Wear of Critical Engine Componentsp. 415
16.9 Full Flow Oil Filtersp. 415
16.9.1 Bypass Filtersp. 417
16.9.2 Centrifugal Filtersp. 418
16.10 Summary 419 Appendix 16.A Filter Tests and Test Standardsp. 419
Referencesp. 419
Indexp. 421