Functional nanostructured materials and membranes for water treatment

Membranes have emerged over the last 30 years as a viable water treatment technology. Earth's population is growing and the need for alternative ways to generate potable water is rising. The recent advent of nanotechnology opens the door to improving processes in membrane
technology, which is a promising step on the way to solving the earth's potable water problem. Current performance is enhanced and new concepts are possible by engineering on the nanoscale. This book presents key areas of nanotechnology such as fouling tolerant and robust membranes, enhanced destruction of pollutants and faster monitoring of water quality.

'Functional Nanostructured Materials and Membranes for Water Treatment' is part of the series on Materials for Sustainable Energy and Development edited by Prof. G.Q. Max Lu. The series covers advances in materials science and innovation for renewable energy, clean use of fossil energy, and greenhouse gas mitigation and associated environmental technologies.

Author Notes

Mikel Duke Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia
Dongyuan Zhao Fudan University, Shanghai, PR China
Raphael Semiat TECHNION, Haifa, Israel

Mikel Duke and Raphael Semiat and Dongyuan ZhaoHilla Shemer and Raphael SemiatShanqing Zhang and Huijun ZhaoYonghui Deng and Dongyuan ZhaoYoram Cohen and Nancy Lin and Kari J. Varin and Diana Chien and Robert F. HicksChalida Klaysom and Bradley P. Ladewig and G.Q. Max Lu and Lianzhou WangDan Li and Huanting WangWdhong Xing and Yiqun Fan and Wanqin JinBo Zhu and Bin Li and Linda Zou and Anita J. Hill and Dongyuan Zhao and Jerry Y. S. Lin and Mikel DukeHarry F. Ridgway and Julian D. Gale and Zak E. Hughes and Matthew B. Stewart and John D. Orhell and Stephen R. GrayMikel Duke

Foreword	p. xiii
Series Editor Preface	p. xv
Acknowledgments	p. xvii
About the Series Editor	p. xix
About the Volume Editorsxxi
List of Contributors	p. xxiii
1 Target Areas for Nanotechnology Development for Water Treatment and Desalination	p. 1
1.1 The Future of Water Treatment: Where Should We Target Our Efforts?	p. 1
1.2 Practical Considerations for Nanotechnology Developers	p. 2
1.3 The Water Treatment Market for New Nanotechnology	p. 3
1.4 Purpose of This Book	p. 4
1.5 Concluding Remarks	p. 5
References	p. 6
2 Destruction of Organics in Water via Iron Nanoparticles	p. 7
2.1 Introduction	p. 7
2.2 Nanoparticles as Catalysts	p. 8
2.2.1 Colloidal Nanoparticles	p. 9
2.2.2 Supported Nanoparticles	p. 9
2.3 Advanced Oxidation Processes	p. 10
2.3.1 Fenton-Like Reactions	p. 12
2.3.1.1 Iron Oxide as Heterogeneous Nanocatalyst	p. 12
2.3.2 Photo-Fenton Reactions	p. 16
2.3.3 Nanocatalytic Wet Oxidation	p. 17
2.4 Nano Zero-Valent Iron (nZVI)	p. 18
2.4.1 Synthesizing Methods	p. 20
2.4.1.1 Emulsified Zero-Valent Iron	p. 21
2.4.2 Degradation Mechanism	p. 22
2.4.3 Field Application of nZVI	p. 25
2.5 Bimetallic nZVI Nanoparticles	p. 27
2.6 Summary	p. 29
References	p. 30
3 Photocatalysis at Nanostructured Titania for Sensing Applications	p. 33
3.1 Background	p. 33
3.1.1 Photocatalysis at TiO 2 Nanomaterials	p. 33
3.1.2 Photoelectrocatalysis at TiO 2 Nanomaterials	p. 36
3.2 Fabrication of TiO 2 Photoanodes	p. 37
3.2.1 Common Fabrication Techniques and Substrates for Photoanodes	p. 37
3.2.2 TiO 2 /BDD Photoanode	p. 38
3.2.3 TiO 2 Mixed-Phase Photoanode	p. 39
3.2.4 CNTs/TiO 2 Composite Photoanode	p. 40
3.3 The Sensing Application of TiO 2 Photocatalysis	p. 41
3.3.1 Photocatalytic Determination of TOC	p. 42
3.3.2 Photocatalytic Determination of COD	p. 43
3.4 The Sensing Application of TiO 2 Photoelectrocatalysis	p. 46
3.4.1 Probe-Type TiO 2 Photoanode for Determination of COD	p. 46
3.4.2 Exhaustive Degradation Mode for Determination of COD	p. 50
3.4.3 Partial Oxidation Mode for Determination of COD	p. 53
3.4.4 UV-LED for Miniature Photoelectrochemical Detectors	p. 55
3.4.5 Photoelectrochemical Universal Detector for Organic Compounds	p. 55
3.5 Photocatalytic Gas Sensing	p. 56
3.5.1 The Photoelectrocatalytic Generation of Analytical Signal	p. 57
3.5.2 Photocatalytic Surface Self-Cleaning for Enhancement of Analytical Signal	p. 58
3.6 Conclusions	p. 59
References	p. 59
4 Mesoporous Materials for Water Treatment	p. 67
4.1 Adsorption of Heavy Metal Ions	p. 68
4.2 Adsorption of Anions	p. 73
4.3 Adsorption of Organic Pollutants	p. 74
4.4 Multifunctional Modification of Sorbents	p. 77
4.5 Photocatalytic Degradation of Organic Pollutants	p. 79
4.6 Conclusions and Outlook	p. 82
Acknowledgments	p. 83
References	p. 83
5 Membrane Surface Nanostructuring with Terminally Anchored Polymer Chains	p. 85
5.1 Introduction	p. 85
5.2 Membrane Fouling	p. 86
5.3 Strategies for Mitigation of Membrane Fouling and Scaling	p. 89
5.4 Membrane Surface Structuring via Graft Polymerization	p. 91
5.4.1 Overview	p. 91
5.4.2 Reaction Schemes for Graft Polymerization	p. 92
5.4.3 Surface Activation with Vinyl Monomers	p. 94
5.4.4 Surface Activation with Chemical Initiators	p. 95
5.4.5 Irradiation-Induced Graft Polymerization	p. 97
5.4.5.1 Gamma-Induced Graft Polymerization	p. 97
5.4.5.2 UV-Induced Graft Polymerization	p. 99
5.4.6 Plasma-Initiated Graft Polymerization	p. 101
5.5 Summary	p. 104
References	p. 107
6 Recent Advances in Ion Exchange Membranes for Desalination Applications	p. 125
6.1 Introduction	p. 225
6.2 Fundamentals of IEMs and Their Transport Phenomena	p. 125
6.2.1 Ion Transport through IEMs	p. 127
6.2.2 Concentration Polarization and Limiting Current Density	p. 128
6.2.2.1 The Overlimiting Current Density	p. 128
6.2.2.2 Water Dissociation	p. 129
6.2.2.3 Gravitational Convection	p. 130
6.2.2.4 Electroconvection	p. 130
6.2.3 Structure and Surface Heterogeneity of IEMs	p. 130
6.3 Material Development	p. 135
6.3.1 The Development of Polymer-Based IEMs	p. 135
6.3.1.1 Direct Modification of Polymer Backbone	p. 135
6.3.1.2 Direct Polymerization from Monomer Units	p. 139
6.3.1.3 Charge Induced on the Film Membranes	p. 142
6.3.2 Composite Ion Exchange Membranes	p. 143
6.3.3 Membranes with Specific Properties	p. 147
6.3.3.1 Improving Antifouling Property	p. 149
6.4 Future Perspectives of IEMs	p. 150
6.4.1 Hybrid System	p. 150
6.4.2 Small-Scale Seawater Desalination	p. 152
6.5 Conclusions	p. 152
References	p. 154
7 Thin Film Nanocomposite Membranes for Water Desalination	p. 163
7.1 Introduction	p. 163
7.2 Fabrication and Characterization of Inorganic Fillers	p. 168
7.3 Fabrication and Characterization of TFC/TFN Membranes	p. 172
7.3.1 Interfacial Polymerization	p. 172
7.3.2 Interfacial Polymerization with Inorganic Fillers	p. 175
7.3.3 Characterization of TFN or TFC Membranes	p. 177
7.4 Membrane Properties Tailored by the Addition of Fillers	p. 179
7.4.1 Water Permeability and Salt Rejection	p. 179
7.4.2 Fouling Resistance, Chlorine Stability, and Other Properties	p. 184
7.5 Commercialization and Future Developments of TFN Membranes	p. 185
7.6 Summary	p. 187
References	p. 188
8 Application of Ceramic Membranes in the Treatment of Water	p. 195
8.1 Introduction	p. 195
8.2 Membrane Preparation	p. 196
8.2.1 Extrusion	p. 196
8.2.2 Sol-Gel Process	p. 196
8.3 Clarification of Surface Water and Seawater Using Ceramic Membranes	p. 198
8.3.1 Ceramic Membrane Micro filtration of Surface Water	p. 199
8.3.1.1 Pretreatment with Flocculation/Coagulation	p. 199
8.3.1.2 Effect of Transmembrane Pressure (TMP) and Cross-Flow Velocity (CFV)	p. 199
8.3.1.3 Ultrasound Cleaning	p. 200
8.3.1.4 Hybrid Ozonation-Ceramic Ultrafiltration	p. 201
8.3.1.5 Ceramic Membrane Applications for Industrial-Scale Waterworks	p. 201
8.3.2 Pretreatment of Seawater RO Using Ceramic Membranes	p. 201
8.3.2.1 Effect of Operational Parameters	p. 201
8.3.2.2 Ceramic Membrane Application for the Industrial-Scale SWRO Plant	p. 202
8.4 Ceramic Membrane Application in the Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration of Wastewater	p. 202
8.4.1 Microstructure of the Membranes	p. 204
8.4.2 Surface Properties of Ceramic Membranes	p. 205
8.4.2.1 Wettability	p. 205
8.4.2.2 Surface Charge Properties	p. 206
8.4.2.3 Technical Process	p. 208
8.4.2.4 Cost	p. 212
8.5 Conclusions and Prospects	p. 213
References	p. 213
9 Functional Zeolitic Framework Membranes for Water Treatment and Desalination	p. 217
9.1 Introduction	p. 217
9.2 Preparation of Zeolite Membranes	p. 219
9.2.1 Direct In situ Crystallization	p. 220
9.2.2 Seeded Secondary Growth	p. 221
9.2.3 Microwave Synthesis	p. 223
9.2.4 Postsynthetic Treatment	p. 228
9.3 Zeolite Membranes for Water Treatment	p. 229
9.3.1 Zeolite Membranes for Desalination	p. 229
9.3.2 Zeolite Membranes for Wastewater Treatment	p. 235
9.3.3 Zeolite Membrane-Based Reactors for Wastewater Treatment	p. 238
9.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives	p. 241
Acknowledgments	p. 241
References	p. 242
10 Molecular Scale Modeling of Membrane Water Treatment Processes	p. 249
10.1 Introduction	p. 249
10.2 Molecular Simulations of Polymeric Membrane Materials for Water Treatment Applications	p. 249
10.2.1 RO Membranes: Synthesis, Structure, and Properties	p. 250
10.2.2 Strategies for Modeling Polymer Membranes	p. 255
10.2.3 Simulation of Water and Solute Transport Behaviors	p. 262
10.2.4 Concluding Remarks	p. 266
10.3 Molecular Simulation of Inorganic Desalination Membranes	p. 267
10.3.1 Modeling of Zeolites	p. 268
10.3.2 Behavior of Water within Zeolites	p. 270
10.3.3 Zeolites and Salt Ions	p. 276
10.3.4 Concluding Remarks	p. 278
10.4 Molecular Simulation of Membrane Fouling	p. 279
10.4.1 Molecular Modeling of Potential Organic Foulants	p. 280
10.4.2 Modeling of Membrane Fouling	p. 286
10.4.3 Future Directions	p. 291
10.4.4 Concluding Remarks	p. 291
References	p. 292
11 Conclusions: Some Potential Future Nanotechnologies for Water Treatment	p. 301
11.1 Nanotubes	p. 301
11.1.1 Fast Molecular Flow	p. 302
11.1.2 CNTs as High Strength Fibers	p. 302
11.1.3 High Aspect Ratio	p. 303
11.1.4 Electrical Conductivity	p. 304
11.2 Graphene	p. 305
11.2.1 Graphene Barrier Material	p. 305
11.2.2 Desalination and Heavy Metal Adsorption	p. 306
11.2.3 Catalytic Assistance	p. 306
11.3 Aquaporins	p. 306
11.4 Metal-Organic, Zeolitic Imidazolate, and Polymer Organic Frameworks	p. 307
11.5 Conclusions	p. 309
References	p. 309
Index	p. 313

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