Handbook of public water systems

Public water systems deliver high-quality water to the public. They also present a vast array of problems, from pollution monitoring and control to the fundamentals of hydraulics and pipe fitting.

Author Notes

HDR is an architectural, engineering, and consulting firm based in Omaha, Nebraska, United States. HDR has worked on projects in all 50 U.S. states and in 60 countries, including notable projects such as the Hoover Dam Bypass, Fort Belvoir Community Hospital, and Roslin Institute building.

Preface	p. xv
1. Criteria and Standards for Potable Water Quality	p. 1
The History of Water Treatment	p. 1
Trends in Raw-Water Quality	p. 5
Legislative and Regulatory History	p. 6
Approach to Contaminant Limits	p. 13
Current Drinking Water Standards	p. 14
Pending Regulations	p. 21
Future Trends	p. 21
List of Acronyms	p. 26
Glossary of Terms Used in Drinking Water Treatment	p. 29
2. Inorganic and Radionuclide Contaminants	p. 32
Inorganic Contaminants of Health Concern	p. 32
Inorganic Contaminants of Aesthetic Concern	p. 52
Residual Disinfectants and Inorganic Disinfection By-Products	p. 54
3. Organic Compounds in Drinking Water	p. 62
Introduction	p. 62
Organics Monitoring	p. 62
Volatile Organic Compounds	p. 62
Synthetic Organic Compounds	p. 70
Natural Organic Matter	p. 71
Disinfection By-Products	p. 76
MTBE	p. 83
4. Microbiology of Drinking Water	p. 87
Introduction	p. 87
Pathogenic Organisms	p. 87
Waterborne Disease Outbreaks	p. 88
Microbial Indicators of Water Quality	p. 96
Current Regulations	p. 97
Future Regulations	p. 98
5. Water Chemistry	p. 102
Introduction	p. 102
Elements and Compounds	p. 102
Solubility	p. 108
Oxidation	p. 111
Metal Corrosion	p. 112
6. Specific Contaminant Removal Methodologies	p. 114
Introduction	p. 114
Inorganic Contaminants	p. 114
Organic Contaminants	p. 114
Radionuclides	p. 116
Microbial Contaminants	p. 116
7. Water System Planning	p. 121
Introduction	p. 121
Water System Description	p. 122
Water Demand Forecast	p. 124
Planning Data Memorandum	p. 132
Conservation Plan	p. 132
Evaluation of Sources of Supply	p. 133
Water Rights Assessment	p. 136
Source Protection Plan	p. 136
Water Quality Monitoring	p. 138
Water System Analysis	p. 138
Capital Improvement Plan	p. 143
Financial Plan	p. 146
Operation and Maintenance Plan	p. 148
Supporting Documents	p. 151
8. Source Water Development	p. 153
Overview	p. 153
Integrated Water Resources Management	p. 153
Alternative Sources	p. 155
Design Periods for Water Sources	p. 160
Surface Water Supplies	p. 161
Development of Reservoirs	p. 163
Reservoir Losses	p. 167
Intakes	p. 168
Contaminants in Supply Sources	p. 173
Factors in the Location of Water Intakes	p. 178
Pretreatment of Surface Water Supplies	p. 179
Chemical Treatment of Reservoirs	p. 184
Reservoir Outlets	p. 185
Groundwater Supplies	p. 186
Groundwater Conditions	p. 188
Wells	p. 192
Groundwater Quality Considerations	p. 204
Evaluation of Water Supply Alternatives	p. 206
Watershed Management	p. 207
Wellhead Protection Programs	p. 210
Develop Procedures to Reduce the Potential for Contamination	p. 212
Contingency Plans	p. 212
9. Aeration and Air Stripping	p. 215
Introduction	p. 215
Gas Transfer Fundamentals	p. 215
Unit Processes	p. 220
Applications	p. 244
10. Coagulation and Flocculation	p. 251
Introduction	p. 251
What Are Coagulation and Flocculation?	p. 251
Theories of Coagulation	p. 253
Coagulation in Water Treatment	p. 259
Rapid Mixing	p. 266
Rapid Mixing Systems	p. 268
Design Examples for Rapid-Mix Systems	p. 273
Temperature Effects	p. 276
Flocculation Systems	p. 278
Flocculation Alternatives	p. 281
Design Examples--Flocculation	p. 282
Coagulation Control and Monitoring	p. 289
Enhanced Coagulation Processes	p. 296
11. Sedimentation and Other Clarification Processes	p. 301
Sedimentation	p. 301
High-Rate Clarification	p. 333
Flotation	p. 337
12. Filtration	p. 351
Introduction	p. 351
The Role of Filtration in Water Treatment	p. 351
Filtration Technologies	p. 352
The Evolution of Gravity Filtration	p. 355
Water Filter Operation	p. 361
Design of Filter Systems	p. 368
Filter Problems and Potential Solutions	p. 397
Direct Filtration	p. 399
Biological Filtration	p. 402
Other Types of Filters	p. 405
13. Water Softening	p. 412
Hardness	p. 412
Softening Goals	p. 413
Lime-Soda Softening	p. 415
Process Design Considerations	p. 421
Unit Process Design Criteria for Lime Softening	p. 424
Recarbonation	p. 427
Single-Stage vs. Two-Stage Recarbonation	p. 428
Sources of Carbon Dioxide	p. 428
Quantities of Carbon Dioxide Required	p. 429
Nonpressurized Carbon Dioxide Generators	p. 431
Compressor Selection	p. 432
Pressure Generators and Underwater Burners	p. 433
Liquid Carbon Dioxide	p. 433
Carbon Dioxide Piping and Diffusion Systems	p. 436
Carbon Dioxide Reaction Basins or Intermediate Settling Basins	p. 437
Operation and Control of Recarbonation	p. 439
Safety	p. 439
Filter Media Rehabilitation	p. 440
14. Iron and Manganese Removal	p. 441
Introduction	p. 441
Factors Influencing the Treatment of Iron and Manganese	p. 442
Stabilization or Sequestering Methods	p. 443
Physical/Chemical Removal of Iron and Manganese	p. 452
Biological Removal of Iron, Ammonium, and Manganese	p. 463
Design and Operation of Iron and Manganese Removal Systems	p. 470
15. Membrane Treatment	p. 476
Introduction	p. 476
Membrane Processes for Drinking Water	p. 476
Membrane Applications	p. 477
Process Selection/Performance	p. 478
Principles of Membrane Separation Processes	p. 479
Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration	p. 488
Nanofiltration and Reverse Osmosis	p. 502
Electrodialysis	p. 511
Disposal of Membrane Waste Streams	p. 516
16. Oxidation	p. 524
Introduction	p. 524
Oxidation Chemistry	p. 524
Oxidants Used in Water Treatment	p. 528
Application of Oxidants in Water Treatment	p. 534
Selection of an Oxidation Process	p. 546
17. Activated Carbon Treatment	p. 555
Past Practices	p. 555
Recent Developments	p. 555
Current Treatment Practices	p. 556
Principles of Carbon Adsorption	p. 557
Adsorptive Characterization of Activated Carbons	p. 558
Physical Characterization of Activated Carbons	p. 561
Design of Activated Carbon Facilities for Water Treatment	p. 563
Carbon Adsorption Enhancement with Ozone	p. 574
Experiences with Activated Carbon	p. 576
18. Ion Exchange and Activated Alumina Sorption	p. 587
Introduction	p. 587
Ion Exchange	p. 587
Sorption on Activated Alumina	p. 606
19. Disinfection	p. 614
Regulatory Requirements	p. 615
General Design Issues	p. 617
Disinfection Alternatives	p. 618
Disinfectant Selection	p. 657
20. Fluoridation and Defluoridation	p. 667
Introduction	p. 667
Fluoride Research	p. 667
Fluoridation Standards and Recommendations	p. 670
Fluoridation	p. 670
Fluoridation Systems	p. 673
Defluoridation	p. 675
21. Distribution System Corrosion: Monitoring and Control	p. 680
Introduction	p. 680
Corrosion Basics	p. 681
Corrosion Assessment	p. 689
Mitigating Corrosion	p. 708
General Chemical Information	p. 716
22. Water Quality Control in Distribution Systems	p. 722
Introduction	p. 722
Traditional Concerns	p. 723
Emerging Concerns	p. 724
Control of Distribution System Water Quality Problems	p. 727
Operation and Maintenance to Improve Water Quality in Distribution Systems	p. 731
Water Quality Modeling in Distribution Systems	p. 732
23. Residuals Management	p. 742
Introduction	p. 742
Characterization of Residuals	p. 742
Minimizing Residuals Production	p. 763
Thickening and Dewatering Alternatives	p. 766
Recovery of Coagulants	p. 791
Ultimate Solids Disposal	p. 794
Radioactive Waste Disposal	p. 804
Membrane Concentrate Disposal	p. 807
24. Chemical Storage and Feeding Systems	p. 819
Introduction	p. 819
Chemical Selection	p. 819
Design Considerations	p. 826
25. Package Water Treatment Systems	p. 866
Introduction	p. 866
Conventional Package Systems	p. 867
Contact Clarification-Filtration Package Systems	p. 871
High-Rate Clarification-Filtration Package Systems	p. 880
Application Criteria and Requirements	p. 886
Operational Considerations	p. 886
26. Plant Hydraulics	p. 888
Introduction	p. 888
General Design Considerations	p. 888
Component Design Considerations	p. 889
Flow Measurement--Open Channel	p. 932
Flow Measurement--Closed Conduits	p. 940
Filters	p. 944
Pressure Surge	p. 947
Tracer Studies	p. 949
27. Storage	p. 953
Introduction	p. 953
Capacity	p. 953
Number and Location of Reservoirs	p. 958
Types of Storage Reservoirs	p. 959
Design Considerations for Conventional Storage	p. 959
28. Distribution Systems	p. 971
Introduction	p. 971
System Capacity	p. 971
System Design	p. 972
Water Distribution System Modeling and Hydraulic Analysis	p. 973
Pipeline Location, Protection, and Materials of Construction	p. 979
29. Pumping Systems	p. 983
Introduction	p. 983
Specific Speed	p. 983
Affinity Laws	p. 986
Net Positive Suction Head	p. 990
Pumping System Curve	p. 991
Power	p. 993
Suction Conditions	p. 999
Centrifugal Pumps	p. 1000
Positive-Displacement Pumps	p. 1004
Variable-Speed Pumping	p. 1008
Other Issues	p. 1008
Pump Layout	p. 1008
30. Energy Management for Water Treatment Facilities	p. 1011
Introduction	p. 1011
Electrical Energy Fundamentals	p. 1011
Energy Consumption in Water Treatment Plants	p. 1012
Energy Efficiency Considerations for Water Systems: An Overview	p. 1013
Energy Optimization Studies	p. 1014
Electric Motors	p. 1022
Variable-Speed Drives	p. 1025
Electric Utility Billing Schedules	p. 1031
Energy Management Systems	p. 1032
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition Systems	p. 1036
Optimum Conveyance Systems	p. 1038
Pumping Considerations	p. 1039
Lighting	p. 1041
Water Conservation	p. 1046
31. Electrical Design Considerations	p. 1049
Introduction	p. 1049
Electrical Planning	p. 1049
Loads and Voltage Level	p. 1049
Serving Utility and Available Electrical Services	p. 1051
Auxiliary Power Systems	p. 1051
Support Systems	p. 1052
Site Layout	p. 1053
Major Electrical Equipment and Space	p. 1054
Hazardous and Corrosive Areas	p. 1054
Instrumentation	p. 1054
32. Economic and Financial Issues	p. 1057
Economic Evaluation of Alternatives	p. 1057
Funding Sources and Mechanisms	p. 1063
Appendix A Financial Statistics Tables	p. 1069
Appendix B Periodic Table of the Elements	p. 1077
Appendix C Atomic Weights	p. 1078
Appendix D Metric Conversion Units	p. 1081
Appendix E Physical Properties of Water	p. 1083
Appendix F Compatibility of Various Chemicals	p. 1085
Appendix G Chemicals Used in Treatment of Water and Wastewater	p. 1095
Index	p. 1124

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