Water loss management : tools and methods for developing countries

Water losses occur in all water distribution systems worldwide and high levels are indicative of poor governance and poor physical condition of the system. Water losses vary from 3% of system input volume in the developed countries to 70% in the developing countries. This high contrast suggests that probably the existing tools and methodologies are not appropriate or cannot be directly applied for water loss reduction in the developing countries.

This study highlights the challenges and prospects of managing water losses in developing countries and provides a toolbox of appropriate tools and methodologies to help water utilities in the developing countries assess inefficiencies in their water distribution systems and take corrective action. Included is a step-by-step approach for water accountability, performance improvement through benchmarking techniques, economic optimization techniques for minimizing revenue losses due to metering inaccuracies, pressure management planning for proactive leakage control, and strategic planning for water loss reduction based on multi-criteria decision analysis. The developed tools and methodologies have been tested and validated in practice on real case studies in Uganda.

It is envisaged that this thesis will be of considerable value to utility managers, researchers, and other agencies involved in managing water distribution losses in developing countries.

Author Notes

Mutikanga Harrison is a Civil Engineer with 18 years experience covering all business aspects of urban water utility management. He is an expert in water loss management and his research interests are in the areas of water distribution services and operations, and performance evaluation and benchmarking. He has recently published over 5 articles in academic journals on water loss management. He is currently the Water Loss Control Manager in National Water and Sewerage Corporation, Kampala City, Uganda.

Dedication	p. v
Acknowledgements	p. vii
List of Figures	p. xv
List of Tables	p. xvii
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations	p. xix
Abstract	p. xxi
Chapter 1 Introduction	p. 1
1.0 Introduction	p. 3
1.1 Global overview of water loss management (WLM)	p. 3
1.1.1 Water losses in some developed countries	p. 4
1.1.2 Water losses in some developing countries	p. 4
1.1.3 Challenges and prospects for WLM in developing countries	p. 5
1.2 Water Loss Management in Uganda	p. 5
1.2.1 Kampala Water Distribution System (KWDS)	p. 6
1.3 The Need for the Research	p. 8
1.4 Objectives of the Study	p. 9
1.5 Outline of the Thesis	p. 10
1.6 References	p. 12
Chapter 2 Review of Methods and Tools for Water Loss Management	p. 15
2.0 Introduction	p. 17
2.1 Definitions and Terminologies	p. 18
2.2 Research Methodology	p. 19
2.3 Leakage Management.	p. 19
2.3.1 Leakage assessment methods	p. 19
2.3.2 Leak detection methods	p. 26
2.3.3 Leakage control techniques	p. 30
2.4 Apparent Losses Management.	p. 32
2.4.1 Tools and methods for water meter management	p. 33
2.4.2 Tools and methods for managing unauthorized use of water	p. 34
2.4.3 Tools and methods for minimising meter reading and data handling errors	p. 35
2.4.4 Assessing apparent water losses	p. 35
2.5 Real Loss Management using Optimization Methods	p. 36
2.5.1 Leak detection based on optimization methods	p. 36
2.5.2 Optimization of system pressure to minimize leakage	p. 37
2.5.3 Optimization of pipeline renewal and pump scheduling	p. 37
2.5.4 Multi-objective optimization methods	p. 38
2.6 Multi-criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA)	p. 39
2.7 Online Monitoring and Event Detection	p. 40
2.8 Performance Benchmarking for Water Loss Management	p. 42
2.8.1 Performance Assessment Systems	p. 42
2.8.2 Performance target-setting	p. 44
2.8.3 Benchmarking methods	p. 45
2.9 Future Research Needs	p. 48
2.10 Conclusion	p. 49
2.11 References	p. 50
Chapter 3 Water Distribution System Performance Evaluation and Benchmarking	p. 61
3.1 Introduction	p. 63
3.2 Methodology for PI Development, Definition and Selection	p. 65
3.2.1 Establishing a PI system	p. 65
3.2.2 The PI system for water loss assessment	p. 67
3.2.3 Selected PIs from the IWA/AWWA PI system	p. 68
3.2.4 The WLA-PI tool	p. 71
3.2.5 Evaluating the effectiveness of the PAS	p. 72
3.2.6 Analysis of Uncertainty in the Water Balance	p. 74
3.2.7 Challenges and lessons learned in introducing a PI culture in NWSC-Uganda	p. 77
3.3 Applicability of performance indices for WLM in developing countries	p. 78
3.3.1 Infrastructure leakage index (ILI)	p. 78
3.3.2 Apparent loss index (ALI)	p. 79
3.4 Benchmarking Using Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA)	p. 81
3.4.1 DEA Models	p. 83
3.4.2 Data and model specifications	p. 85
3.4.3 Results and discussion of DEA-based benchmarking	p. 87
3.4.4 Policy implications of the DEA-benchmarking study	p. 94
3.5 Conclusions and Recommendations	p. 95
3.5.1 Conclusions	p. 95
3.5.2 Recommendations	p. 96
3.6 References	p. 97
Chapter 4 Water Meter Management for Reduction of Revenue Losses	p. 101
4.1 Introduction	p. 103
4.2 Materials and Methods	p. 105
4.2.1 Sampling meters and properties	p. 106
4.2.2 In-situ measurements	p. 108
4.2.3 Laboratory studies	p. 111
4.2.4 Weighted meter accuracy	p. 113
4.2.5 Data analysis	p. 113
4.3 Results and Discussions	p. 113
4.3.1 Demand profiling results	p. 114
4.3.2 Weighted meter accuracy results	p. 115
4.3.3 Influence of private elevated storage tanks	p. 116
4.3.4 Impact of sub-metering on meter accuracy	p. 117
4.3.5 Meter failure analysis	p. 119
4.4 Estimation for Water Loss due to Metering Inaccuracy and Meter Failure	p. 122
4.4.1 Procedure for estimating water losses due to metering	p. 122
4.4.2 Estimating water losses for case study due to meter failure and errors	p. 123
4.5 Optimal Meter Sizing and Selection	p. 124
4.5.1 Example of water meter optimal sizing	p. 124
4.5.2 Example of a single-family water meter optimal selection	p. 126
4.6 Optimal Meter Replacement Frequency Model	p. 126
4.6.1 Framework of I-WAMRM	p. 127
4.6.2 NPV of the life cycle costs	p. 128
4.6.3 Predicting water meter accuracy	p. 129
4.6.4 Model application to the case study water utility	p. 131
4.6.5 Numerical results and discussions	p. 132
4.6.6 Sensitivity analysis	p. 133
4.6.7 Limitations of the Model	p. 134
4.7 Conclusions and Recommendations	p. 135
4.7.1 Conclusions	p. 135
4.7.2 Recommendations	p. 135
4.8 References	p. 137
Chapter 5 Assessment of Apparent Losses in Water Distribution Systems	p. 139
5.1 Introduction	p. 141
5.2 Research Methodology	p. 143
5.2.1 Assessment of meter reading errors	p. 143
5.2.2 Assessment of data handling and billing errors	p. 143
5.2.3 Assessment of unauthorized water use	p. 144
5.3 Application of the Methodology to KWDS	p. 145
5.3.1 Metering accuracy	p. 145
5.3.2 Meter reading errors	p. 146
5.3.3 Data handling and billing errors	p. 146
5.3.4 Unauthorized water use	p. 146
5.3.5 Apparent losses component breakdown	p. 146
5.4 Apparent Losses in Developing and Developed Countries	p. 146
5.4.1 Apparent Losses in developing countries	p. 147
5.4.2 Apparent losses in the developed countries	p. 148
5.5 Guidelines for Estimating Apparent Losses with Data Limitations	p. 149
5.6 Apparent Losses caused By Water Meter Inaccuracies at Low Flow Rates	p. 150
5.6.1 Quantifying apparent loss due to meter inaccuracy at low flow rates	p. 153
5.7 Reducing the Level of Apparent Losses	p. 155
5.7.1 Factors influencing the level of apparent losses	p. 155
5.7.2 Apparent loss reduction strategies	p. 156
5.8 Conclusions and Recommendations	p. 158
5.8.1 Conclusions	p. 158
5.8.2 Recommendations	p. 159
5.9 References	p. 159
Chapter 6 Pressure Management Planning for Leakage Control	p. 163
6.1 Introduction	p. 165
6.2 Case Study Background	p. 168
6.3 Methodology for the Decision Support Tool (DST)	p. 169
6.3.1 Bursts and background estimates (BABE)	p. 170
6.3.2 Fixed and variable area discharges (FAVAD) principles	p. 171
6.3.3 Pressure-dependent and pressure-independent flows	p. 171
6.3.4 Flow-head loss (Q-H) equations	p. 173
6.3.5 Analysis of different PRV settings	p. 173
6.4 Decision Support Tool (DST)	p. 174
6.4.1 Decision Support Tool data requirements	p. 174
6.5 Network Hydraulic Modeling (NHM)	p. 176
6.5.1 Quantifying leakage based on the top-down and bottom-up approaches	p. 176
6.5.2 Quantifying leakage using the EPANET emitter coefficient	p. 177
6.5.3 Nodal demand allocation and calibration	p. 177
6.5.4 Model Validation	p. 179
6.6 Application to case study	p. 180
6.7 Results and Discussion	p. 181
6.7.1 Comparison of leakage estimation by different methods	p. 181
6.7.2 Comparison of water savings predicted by the NHM under different PM options	p. 182
6.7.3 Comparison of water savings predicted by the DST and NHM	p. 183
6.7.4 Limitations of the Decision Support Tool (DST)	p. 185
6.7.5 Key lessons learned during the study	p. 185
6.8 Conclusions	p. 187
6.9 References	p. 187
Chapter 7 Multi-criteria Decision Analysis for Strategic Water Loss Management Planning	p. 191
7.1 Introduction	p. 193
7.2 The Decision Making Process	p. 194
7.2.1 Steps in decision making	p. 195
7.3 Multi-criteria Decision Analysis	p. 195
7.3.1 Definition and terminologies of basic terms of MCDA methods	p. 196
7.3.2 Multi-criteria problems	p. 196
7.3.3 Multi-criteria Decision Analysis Methods	p. 197
7.3.4 Strengths and Weaknesses of MCDA Methods	p. 198
7.3.5 How to select an appropriate MCDA method	p. 199
7.4 The Promethee Preference Modelling Information	p. 199
7.4.1 Principles of the Promethee Method	p. 199
7.4.2 The weights	p. 200
7.4.3 The preference function	p. 200
7.4.4 The individual stakeholder group analysis.	p. 200
7.4.5 The Promethee GDSS procedure	p. 201
7.4.6 The decision sights software	p. 201
7.5 The MCDA Framework Methodology for SWLMP	p. 202
7.5.1 Problem structuring phase	p. 203
7.5.2 Design phase	p. 204
7.5.3 The choice phase	p. 206
7.5.4 Group decision phase	p. 206
7.5.5 Testing phase	p. 206
7.5.6 Implementation phase	p. 207
7.5.7 Monitoring phase	p. 207
7.6 Application of the Integrated Framework Methodology	p. 207
7.6.1 Problem formulation for the KWDS	p. 207
7.6.2 Identifying actors	p. 207
7.6.3 Establishing goals and objectives	p. 208
7.6.4 Generating options	p. 208
7.6.5 Determining evaluation criteria	p. 209
7.6.6 Predicting performance	p. 210
7.6.7 Selecting the multi-criteria method and preference modelling	p. 211
7.6.8 Determining criteria weights	p. 211
7.6.9 Evaluating options	p. 211
7.6.10 Sensitivity analysis	p. 214
7.6.11 Group decision-making	p. 214
7.6.12 Compromise solution testing	p. 215
7.6.13 Implementation phase	p. 215
7.6.14 Monitoring phase	p. 216
7.7 Results Discussion	p. 216
7.7.1 Challenges and lessons learned	p. 218
7.8 Conclusions	p. 219
7.9 References	p. 220
Chapter 8 Conclusions and Recommendations	p. 223
8.0 Introduction	p. 225
8.1 Water loss management in developing countries: challenges and prospects	p. 225
8.2 Review of tools and methods for managing tosses in water distribution systems.	p. 226
8.3 Water distribution system performance evaluation and benchmarking	p. 227
8.4 Water meter management for reduction of revenue losses	p. 227
8.5 Assessment of apparent losses in urban water distribution systems	p. 227
8.6 Pressure management and network hydraulic modelling for leakage control	p. 228
8.7 Multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) for water loss management	p. 228
8.8 Application Guidelines for the Water Loss Management Toolbox	p. 228
8.9 Recommendations for Future Research	p. 229
8.10 References	p. 231
Appendix A PM DST Computer Code	p. 231
Appendix B1 Questionnaire - Survey with DMs	p. 235
Appendix B2 Additional Information-Survey with DMs	p. 238
Appendix B3 Survey Results of DMs	p. 242
Appendix B4 Deriving Criteria Weights	p. 243
Nederlandse Samenvatting (Dutch Summary)	p. 247
About the Author	p. 251

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