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Summary
Summary
This book covers the development of electric cars from their early days to pure electric, fuel-cell and new hybrid models in production. It covers the latest technological issues faced by automotive engineers working on electric cars, including charging, infrastructure, safety and costs, as well as making predictions about future developments and vehicle numbers. Considerable work has gone into electric car and battery development in the last ten years, with the prospect of substantial improvements in range and performance in battery cars as well as in hybrids and those using fuel cells. The book comprehensively covers this important subject and will be of particular interest to engineers working on electric vehicle design, development and use, as well as managers interested in the key business factors vital for the successful transfer of electric cars into the mass market.
Author Notes
Mike Westbrook recently retired as Manager of Technological Research with Ford Motor Company at Dunton, Essex, after 33 years in the automotive industry
Table of Contents
Preface | p. ix |
Acknowledgements | p. xi |
Glossary | p. xv |
1 Introduction | p. 1 |
2 The history of electric cars up to 1990 | p. 6 |
2.1 The early days | p. 6 |
2.2 The first road vehicles | p. 9 |
2.3 Competition for speed and reliability | p. 11 |
2.4 Electric vehicles compete with steam and gasoline | p. 15 |
2.5 The golden age | p. 16 |
2.6 Cost problems for electric drive | p. 19 |
2.7 The dark ages (1925-1960) | p. 19 |
2.8 The modern era | p. 20 |
2.8.1 The 1960s | p. 20 |
2.8.2 The 1970s | p. 24 |
2.8.3 The 1980s | p. 25 |
General References | p. 28 |
3 Propulsion methods | p. 29 |
3.1 DC motors | p. 29 |
3.1.1 Series-wound motors | p. 31 |
3.1.2 Shunt-wound motors | p. 33 |
3.1.3 Compound-wound motors | p. 33 |
3.1.4 Separately excited motors | p. 33 |
3.2 AC motors | p. 34 |
3.2.1 Induction motors | p. 35 |
3.2.2 Synchronous motors | p. 37 |
3.2.3 The brushless DC motor | p. 39 |
3.2.4 Switched reluctance motors | p. 40 |
3.3 Motor cooling | p. 43 |
3.4 Transmission systems | p. 44 |
References | p. 47 |
General References | p. 47 |
4 Controls and power electronics | p. 48 |
4.1 Electronic energy management | p. 49 |
4.2 Power electronics | p. 52 |
4.3 Power switching devices | p. 54 |
4.3.1 The bipolar Darlington | p. 55 |
4.3.2 The thyristor | p. 56 |
4.3.3 The gate turn-off thyristor (GTO) | p. 57 |
4.3.4 The MOS-controlled thyristor (MCT) | p. 58 |
4.3.5 The MOSFET | p. 58 |
4.3.6 The insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) | p. 59 |
4.4 Semiconductor cooling | p. 60 |
4.5 Capacitors | p. 62 |
4.6 Current measurement | p. 63 |
References | p. 64 |
5 Energy sources 1--Storage batteries | p. 65 |
5.1 Lead-acid | p. 69 |
5.2 Advanced lead-acid | p. 70 |
5.3 Valve-regulated lead-acid (VRLA) | p. 71 |
5.4 Metal foil lead-acid | p. 74 |
5.5 Nickel-iron | p. 75 |
5.6 Nickel-zinc | p. 76 |
5.7 Nickel-cadmium | p. 77 |
5.8 Nickel-metal hydride | p. 78 |
5.9 Sodium-sulphur | p. 79 |
5.10 Sodium-nickel chloride | p. 80 |
5.11 Lithium-iron sulphide | p. 81 |
5.12 Lithium-solid polymer | p. 82 |
5.13 Lithium-ion | p. 83 |
5.14 Aluminium-air and zinc-air | p. 84 |
5.15 Batteries for hybrid vehicles | p. 85 |
5.16 Summary--storage batteries | p. 86 |
References | p. 86 |
6 Energy sources 2--Other technologies | p. 88 |
6.1 The supercapacitor | p. 88 |
6.2 Fuel-cells | p. 89 |
6.3 Solar cells | p. 92 |
6.4 The flywheel | p. 93 |
6.5 The hydraulic accumulator | p. 96 |
6.6 Compressed-air storage | p. 97 |
6.7 Thermal energy storage | p. 97 |
6.8 Summary--non-battery energy sources | p. 97 |
References | p. 98 |
7 Charging | p. 99 |
7.1 Early systems | p. 99 |
7.2 Charging techniques for modern lead-acid batteries | p. 101 |
7.3 Charging techniques for nickel-based batteries | p. 105 |
7.4 Charging techniques for non-aqueous batteries | p. 107 |
7.5 Battery state-of-charge measurement | p. 107 |
7.6 Battery management | p. 109 |
7.7 Connection methods | p. 111 |
7.8 Battery exchange | p. 115 |
7.9 Infrastructure implications | p. 116 |
7.10 Recharging/refuelling of other power storage devices | p. 118 |
References | p. 119 |
8 Vehicle design and safety | p. 121 |
8.1 Effect of battery weight and volume | p. 121 |
8.2 Designing for minimum weight | p. 122 |
8.3 Safety of batteries | p. 123 |
8.4 Safety of alternative energy generating and storage systems | p. 125 |
8.5 Battery disposal and recycling | p. 126 |
8.6 Safety of other electrical systems | p. 126 |
8.7 General design and safety issues | p. 127 |
8.7.1 Heating and air-conditioning | p. 127 |
8.7.2 Auxiliary power subsystem | p. 128 |
8.7.3 Braking, suspension and wheel systems | p. 128 |
8.7.4 Rolling resistance | p. 129 |
References | p. 131 |
9 Battery electric cars | p. 132 |
9.1 Production electric cars | p. 132 |
9.1.1 The General Motors EV1 | p. 134 |
9.1.2 The Ford Th!nk City | p. 137 |
9.1.3 The Nissan Hypermini | p. 139 |
9.1.4 The Toyota RAV 4 EV | p. 140 |
9.2 Prototype and experimental electric cars | p. 141 |
10 Hybrid electric cars | p. 142 |
10.1 Hybrid system configurations | p. 143 |
10.2 All-electric hybrid vehicles | p. 144 |
10.3 Electromechanical hybrid vehicles | p. 145 |
10.4 Heat engine-electric hybrid vehicles | p. 146 |
10.4.1 Series hybrids | p. 147 |
10.4.2 Parallel hybrids | p. 148 |
10.5 Hybrid concepts | p. 151 |
10.6 Production hybrid cars | p. 154 |
10.6.1 The Honda Insight | p. 154 |
10.6.2 The Toyota Prius | p. 156 |
10.6.3 The Nissan Tino | p. 163 |
10.7 Prototype and experimental hybrid cars | p. 163 |
References | p. 164 |
General References | p. 164 |
11 Fuel-cell electric cars | p. 165 |
11.1 Hydrogen fuelling | p. 165 |
11.2 Reforming | p. 166 |
11.3 Infrastructure | p. 169 |
11.4 Safety | p. 170 |
11.5 Prototype and experimental fuel-cell electric cars | p. 173 |
References | p. 173 |
12 Economics of electric cars | p. 174 |
12.1 Electric car cost comparisons | p. 174 |
12.2 Cost of batteries and fuel-cells | p. 176 |
12.3 Hybrid costs | p. 177 |
12.4 Electricity supply and charging | p. 178 |
12.5 Charging at home and away | p. 179 |
12.6 Can the electric car compete economically? | p. 179 |
References | p. 180 |
13 Future developments | p. 181 |
13.1 Propulsion methods | p. 182 |
13.2 Energy sources | p. 182 |
13.3 Controls and power electronics | p. 186 |
13.4 Charging | p. 187 |
13.5 Vehicle design and safety | p. 189 |
13.6 Hybrid technology | p. 190 |
13.7 The electric car of 2025 | p. 190 |
References | p. 193 |