Integrated forest biorefineries

This reference book describes how bioprocessing and biotechnology could enhance the value extracted from wood-based lignocellulosic fiber by employing both biochemical and thermochemical conversion processes. It documents recent accomplishments and suggests future prospects for research and development of integrated forest biorefineries (IFBR) as the path forward for the pulp, paper and other fiber-processing industries. This is the only book to cover this area of high economic, social, and environmental importance. It is aimed at industrialists and academics from diverse science and engineering backgrounds including chemical and biotechnology companies, governmental and professional bodies, and scholarly societies. The Editor and contributors are internationally recognized scientists and many are leaders in their respective fields. The book starts with an introductory overview of the current state of biorefining and a justification for future developments. The next four chapters deal with social, economic and environmental issues related to regulations, biomass production and supply, process modelling, and life cycle analysis. Subsequent chapters focus on the extraction of biochemicals from biomass and their potential utilization to add value to the IFBR prior to pulping. The book then presents, compares and evaluates two types of forest biorefineries based on kraft and organosolv pulping. Finally, the book assess the potential of waste biomass and streams, such paper mill sludge and black liquor, to serve as feedstock for biofuel production and value-added biomaterials through both the biochemical and thermochemical routes of biomass bioprocessing. The economics of the described IFBR processes and products, and their environmental impact, is a major focus in most of the chapters. Practical examples are presented where relevant and applicable.

Author Notes

Professor Lew P. Christopher has twenty years experience in wood science, the pulp and paper industry, biotechnology, and bioprocessing. His research output exceeds 230 scientific contributions including peer-reviewed papers, book chapters, technical reports, invited lectures, and conference presentations. He is also the inventor of several international patents. For eleven years, Professor Christopher worked in research and development at Sappi, a large international pulp and paper company. He was also Affiliate Professor at the University of the Free State and University of Pretoria in South Africa. Now Director of the Center for Bioprocessing Research and Development at the South Dakota School of Mines and Technology, Professor Christopher leads a large team developing technologies for production of biomass-derived biofuels and value-added bioproducts. He is also on the Editorial Board of several international journals and is an active member of a number of professional societies. He has chaired sessions at various international biotechnology conferences and, in 2004, organized the 9th International Conference on Biotechnology in the Pulp and Paper Industry. Dr Christopher is currently serving on the National Science Foundation Industrial Advisory Board of the Industry-University Cooperative Research Center on BioEnergy R&D and on the International Scientific Advisory Committee on Renewable Resources and Biorefineries.

Lew P. ChristopherJianbang GanMarcia Patton-Mallory and Kenneth E. Skog and Virginia H. DaleBrian L. Cooper and Jeffrey R. London and Robert J. Mellon and Michael A. BehrensEmmanuel Kofi AckomT. H. Wegner and C. J. Houtman and A. W. Rudie and B. L. Illman and P. J. Ince and E. M. Bilek and T. W. JeffriesThomas E. Amidon and Biljana Bujanovic and Shijie Liu and Asif Hasan and Joel R. HowardGöran Gellerstedt and Per Tomani and Peter Axegård and Birgit BacklundSushil Adhikari and Suchithra Thangalazhy-Gopakumar and Steven TaylorDavid B Levin and Ji Hye Jo and Pin-Ching ManessZhiyong Cai and Alan W. Rudie and Theodore H. Wegner

Chapter 1 Integrated Forest Biorefineries: Current State and Development Potential	p. 1
1.1 Introduction	p. 1
1.2 Integrated Forest Biorefineries	p. 5
1.2.1 Hemicellulose Platform	p. 8
1.2.1.1 Hemicellulose Composition and Structure	p. 8
1.2.1.2 Fate of Hemicellulose during Pulping	p. 10
1.2.1.3 Hemicellulose Extraction	p. 11
1.2.1.4 Bioproducts from Hemicellulose	p. 12
1.2.1.5 Hemicellulose-Based Biorefinery	p. 27
1.2.2 Lignin Platform	p. 29
1.2.2.1 Lignin Composition and Structure	p. 29
1.2.2.2 Fate of Lignin during Pulping	p. 29
1.2.2.3 Bioproducts from Lignin	p. 32
1.2.3 Extractives Platform	p. 40
1.2.3.1 Composition, Classification and Properties of Extractives	p. 40
1.2.3.2 Fate of Extractives during Pulping and Bleaching	p. 45
1.3 Concluding Remarks	p. 46
Acknowledgements	p. 49
References	p. 49
Chapter 2 Economic and Policy Aspects of Integrated Forest Biorefineries	p. 67
2.1 Introduction	p. 67
2.2 Traditional Forest Products Sector	p. 68
2.2.1 Conditions and Outlook of Forest Products Markets	p. 68
2.2.2 Supply Chains of Traditional Forest Products	p. 69
2.3 Integrated Forest Biorefineries (IFBRs)	p. 70
2.3.1 Supply Chains of IFBRs	p. 70
2.3.2 Key Economic Aspects of IFBRs	p. 71
2.3.2.1 End-Product Portfolio	p. 72
2.3.2.2 Feedstock Choices	p. 72
2.3.2.3 Logistics and Conversion Technologies	p. 73
2.3.2.4 Siting and Size of IFBRs	p. 74
2.4 A Decision Support Model for IFBRs	p. 74
2.5 Policy Aspects of IFBRs	p. 77
2.5.1 Major Barriers to IFBR Development and Deplopment	p. 77
2.5.2 Policy for Enhancing IFBR Development and Deployment	p. 77
2.6 Summary and Discussion	p. 78
Acknowledgement	p. 79
References	p. 79
Chapter 3 Integrated Forest Biorefineries: Sustainability Considerations for Forest Biomass Feedstocks	p. 80
3.1 Introduction	p. 80
3.2 Background	p. 81
3.3 U.S. Sustainability Frameworks and Policy	p. 82
3.4 International Sustainability Frameworks and Policy	p. 94
3.5 Sustainability Topics to Watch	p. 94
Acknowledgements	p. 95
References	p. 95
Chapter 4 Integrated Forest Biorefineries: Product-Based Economic Factors	p. 98
4.1 Introduction	p. 98
4.2 Biorefinery Operational Parameters	p. 100
4.3 Hydrolysis Yield Impact on Economic Models	p. 101
4.4 Benefits of Product-Driven Operational Parameters	p. 105
4.5 Value of Residues	p. 108
4.6 Thermochemical Options	p. 110
4.7 Integrated Processing	p. 113
4.8 Conclusion	p. 114
References	p. 116
Chapter 5 Integrated Forest Biorefineries: Industrial Sustainability	p. 117
5.1 Introduction	p. 117
5.2 Industrial Sustainability: An Overview	p. 120
5.3 Integrated Forest Biorefinery: An Overview	p. 121
5.3.1 Retrofitting Pulp and Paper Mills into Integrated Forest Biorefineries	p. 121
5.3.2 Integrated Forest Biorefinery with Industrial Sustainability Applications: A Case Study of Tembec Temiscaming	p. 122
5.4 Opportunities in Industrial Sustainability for Integrated Forest Biorefinery: A Case Study	p. 123
5.4.1 Environmental Policy	p. 124
5.4.2 Raw Material Sourcing	p. 124
5.4.3 Manufacturing	p. 124
5.4.4 Environmentally Benign Management of Waste Effluent and Reutilization	p. 124
5.4.5 End-of-Life Management of Products	p. 125
5.4.6 Socioeconomic Aspects	p. 125
5.5 Challenges: Industrial Sustainability of Integrated Forest Biorefinery	p. 126
5.5.1 Environmental Sustainability Issues Related to Feedstock	p. 126
5.5.1.1 Greenhouse-Gas Emissions (Direct and Indirect)	p. 127
5.5.1.2 Energy	p. 127
5.5.1.3 Land for Food, Fuel and Fiber	p. 127
5.5.1.4 Water	p. 127
5.5.1.5 Biodiversity	p. 128
5.5.1.6 Socioeconomic Aspects	p. 128
5.5.2 Research and Development	p. 128
5.5.3 Logistics	p. 129
5.5.4 Investment	p. 129
5.5.5 Competition with Other Industries for Feedstock	p. 129
5.5.6 Processing	p. 129
5.5.7 End-of-Life Legislations for New Products	p. 129
5.6 Policy Intervention: Improving Competitiveness of Integrated Forest Biorefinery Through Industrial Sustainability	p. 130
5.7 Conclusions	p. 131
References	p. 131
Chapter 6 Prehydrolysis Pulping with Fermentation Coproducts	p. 134
6.1 Introduction and Background	p. 134
6.2 Prehydrolysis Thermomechanical Pulping	p. 137
6.2.1 Experimental Prehydrolysis-TMP	p. 138
6.2.2 Experimental Fermentation of Hydrolysate Sugars	p. 140
6.2.3 Modeling Prehydrolysis-TMP and Fermentation Process Concept	p. 143
6.3 Summary and Path Forward	p. 149
References	p. 150
Chapter 7 Niche Position and Opportunities for Woody Biomass Conversion	p. 151
7.1 The "Business" of Transforming Plant Biomass for Human Use	p. 151
7.2 The Science Behind the Technology: Woody Biomass Conversions	p. 152
7.3 Pretreatment Processes	p. 155
7.3.1 Acid Pretreatment	p. 156
7.3.2 Alkaline Pretreatment	p. 157
7.3.3 Steam Explosion Pretreatment	p. 158
7.3.4 Ammonia Fiber Explosion Pretreatment (AFEX)	p. 158
7.3.5 Hydrothermal Pretreatment	p. 159
7.4 Bringing the Science to Commerce: ABS Process™ Biorefinery Technology	p. 162
7.5 Output Products from the ABS Process™	p. 164
7.5.1 Products from Extracted Wood and Nonfood Agricultural Materials	p. 164
7.5.2 Products from Extracted Sugars	p. 165
7.5.3 Chemicals and Materials	p. 166
7.5.4 Insol Fraction	p. 168
7.5.5 Sol Fraction	p. 169
7.6 Summary	p. 170
References	p. 170
Chapter 8 Lignin Recovery and Lignin-Based Products	p. 180
8.1 Lignin Sources	p. 180
8.1.1 Sources in Nature	p. 180
8.1.2 Industrial Sources	p. 182
8.2 Lignin Production and Process Integration	p. 183
8.2.1 Lignins from Alkaline Pulping	p. 183
8.2.1.1 Lignin Removal from Pulping Liquors	p. 184
8.2.1.2 Analytical Data on Kraft and Soda Lignins	p. 185
8.2.1.3 Process Integration and System Aspects	p. 186
8.2.2 Lignin from Sulfite Pulping	p. 191
8.2.2.1 Analytical Data on Sulfite Lignins	p. 192
8.2.3 Lignin from Other Liquors	p. 192
8.3 Lignin Upgrading and Products	p. 193
8.3.1 Situation Today	p. 193
8.3.2 Applications for Polymeric Lignin	p. 194
8.3.2.1 Carbon Fibers	p. 194
8.3.2.2 Activated Carbon	p. 195
8.3.2.3 Polyurethanes	p. 196
8.3.2.4 Adhesives	p. 198
8.3.2.5 Complexing Agents	p. 199
8.3.3 Applications for Monomeric Lignin	p. 200
8.3.3.1 Phenols	p. 200
8.3.3.2 Other Aromatics	p. 201
8.3.4 Fuel Applications	p. 201
8.3.4.1 Kraft Lignin Pellets and Kraft Lignin as Additive in Biofuel Pellets	p. 202
8.3.4.2 Kraft Lignin Fuel Slurry	p. 203
8.3.4.3 Experiences from Large-Scale Boiler Trials	p. 203
References	p. 206
Chapter 9 Integrated Forest Biorefineries: Gasification and Pyrolysis for Fuel and Power Production	p. 211
9.1 Biomass Gasification	p. 211
9.1.1 Biomass Characterization	p. 212
9.1.2 Gasifier Types and Processes	p. 213
9.1.3 Chemical Reactions in the Gasification Process	p. 217
9.1.4 Effect of Various Parameters in the Gasification Process	p. 220
9.1.4.1 Moisture Content	p. 221
9.1.4.2 Equivalence Ratio	p. 222
9.1.4.3 Temperature	p. 223
9.1.4.4 Biomass Type	p. 224
9.1.4.5 Particle Size	p. 225
9.1.4.6 Pressure	p. 226
9.1.4.7 Gasification Medium	p. 226
9.1.4.8 Bed Materials	p. 226
9.1.5 Gasification of Black Liquor	p. 227
9.1.6 Use of Producer Gas for Power and Fuels	p. 227
9.2 Fast Pyrolysis	p. 228
9.2.1 Pyrolysis Reactor Configurations	p. 230
9.2.1.1 Bubbling-Fluidized Bed	p. 230
9.2.1.2 Circulating-Fluidized Bed	p. 230
9.2.1.3 Rotating-Cone Pyrolyzer	p. 232
9.2.1.4 Ablative Pyrolysis	p. 232
9.2.1.5 Vacuum Pyrolysis	p. 232
9.2.1.6 Auger Reactor	p. 233
9.2.2 Pyrolysis Mechanism and Pathways	p. 234
9.2.3 Bio-Oil Properties	p. 235
9.2.4 Bio-Oil Applications	p. 236
9.2.4.1 Combustion	p. 237
9.2.4.2 Transportation Fuels	p. 238
9.2.4.3 Chemicals	p. 238
9.2.5 Bio-Oil Upgrading	p. 239
9.2.5.1 Hydrotreating	p. 240
9.2.5.2 Catalytic Cracking	p. 240
9.2.5.3 Catalytic Pyrolysis	p. 241
9.2.6 Pyrolysis of Lignin	p. 242
9.2.7 Economical Analysis	p. 242
References	p. 243
Chapter 10 Biohydrogen Production from Cellulosic Biomass	p. 256
10.1 Biohydrogen	p. 256
10.1.1 Dark Fermentative Hydrogen Production	p. 257
10.1.2 Hydrogenase Enzymes	p. 258
10.1.2.1 [FeFe]-Hydrogenases	p. 258
10.1.2.2 [NiFe]-Hydrogenases	p. 259
10.2 Thermodynamic Considerations	p. 260
10.3 Hydrogen Yields from Lignocellulosic Biomass	p. 261
10.3.1 Biohydrogen from Hydrolyzed Cellulose	p. 262
10.3.2 Biohydrogen from Direct Cellulose Fermentation	p. 263
10.4 Process Engineering for Fermentation	p. 264
10.4.1 Single-Phase Fermentation Reactions	p. 265
10.4.2 Two-Phase Systems	p. 266
10.4.2.1 Dark Fermentation Followed by Photofermentation	p. 266
10.4.2.2 Dark Fermentation Followed by Electrohydrogenesis	p. 267
References	p. 268
Chapter 11 Integrated Technology for Biobased Composites	p. 276
11.1 Introduction	p. 276
11.2 Conventional Biobased Composite Materials	p. 278
11.2.1 Composite Elements	p. 278
11.2.2 Adhesives	p. 279
11.2.3 Additives	p. 280
11.2.4 Products	p. 281
11.2.4.1 Oriented Strandboard	p. 281
11.2.4.2 Plywood	p. 282
11.2.4.3 Structural Composite Lumber and Timber Products	p. 283
11.2.4.4 Particleboard	p. 284
11.2.4.5 Fiberboard	p. 285
11.2.4.6 Cellulosic Board	p. 286
11.3 Wood-Nonwood Composite Materials	p. 287
11.3.1 Inorganic-Bonded Composite Materials	p. 287
11.3.2 Wood-Thermoplastic Composite Materials	p. 288
References	p. 289
Subject Index	p. 290

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